2007AASLD Chronic Hepatitis B PRACTICE GUIDELINES

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Chronic Hepatitis B
Anna S. F. Lok1 and Brian J. McMahon2
This guideline has been approved by the American
Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and represents
the position of the Association.
Preamble
These guidelines have been written to assist physicians
and other health care providers in the recognition, diagnosis,
and management of patients chronically infected
with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). These recommendations
provide a data-supported approach to patients with
hepatitis B. They are based on the following: (1) formal
review and analysis of published literature on the topic—
Medline search up to February 2006 and meeting abstracts
in 2003-2005; (2) American College of Physicians
Manual for Assessing Health Practices and Designing
Practice Guidelines 1; (3) guideline policies, including the
AASLD Policy on the Development and Use of Practice
Guidelines and the AGA Policy Statement on Guidelines2;
and (4) the experience of the authors in hepatitis B.
In addition, the proceedings of the 2000 and 2006 National
Institutes of Health conferences on the “Management
of Hepatitis B”, the EASL 2002 International
Consensus Conference on Hepatitis B and the Asian-Pacific
Consensus Statement on the Management of
Chronic Hepatitis B: a 2005 Update, were considered in
the development of these guidelines.3-6 The recommendations
suggest preferred approaches to the diagnostic,
therapeutic, and preventive aspects of care. They are intended
to be flexible. Specific recommendations are based
on relevant published information. In an attempt to characterize
the quality of evidence supporting recommendations,
the Practice Guidelines Committee of the AASLD
requires a category to be assigned and reported with each
recommendation (Table 1). These guidelines may be updated
periodically as new information becomes available.
Introduction
An estimated 350 million persons worldwide are
chronically infected with HBV.7 In the United States,
there are an estimated 1.25 million hepatitis B carriers,
defined as persons positive for hepatitis B surface antigen
(HBsAg) for more than 6 months.8,9 Carriers of HBV are
at increased risk of developing cirrhosis, hepatic decompensation,
and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).10 Although
most carriers will not develop hepatic
complications from chronic hepatitis B, 15% to 40% will
develop serious sequelae during their lifetime.11 The following
guidelines are an update to previous AASLD
guidelines and reflect new knowledge and the licensure of
new antiviral agents against HBV. Recommendations in
these guidelines pertain to the (1) evaluation of patients
with chronic HBV infection, (2) prevention of HBV infection,
(3) management of chronically infected persons,
and (4) treatment of chronic hepatitis B. Management of
hepatitis B in patients waiting for liver transplantation
and prevention of recurrent hepatitis B post-liver transplant
have been covered in a recent review article and will
not be discussed in these guidelines.12
Screening High Risk Populations to Identify
HBV Infected Persons
The global prevalence of HBsAg varies greatly and
countries can be defined as having a high, intermediate
and low prevalence of HBV infection based on a prevalence
of HBsAg carriers of  8%, 2%-7%, and  2% respectively.
7,9,13,14 In developed countries, the prevalence
is higher among those who immigrated from high or intermediate
prevalence countries and in those with high
risk behaviors.7,9
HBV is transmitted by perinatal, percutaneous, and
sexual exposure, as well as by close person-to-person contact
presumably by open cuts and sores, especially among
children in hyperendemic areas.9 HBV can survive out-
Abbreviations: HBV, hepatitis B virus; HBsAg, hepatitis B surface antigen;
HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; HBeAg, hepatitis B e antigen; cccDNA, covalently
closed circular DNA; anti-HBe, antibody to hepatitis B e antigen; ALT, alanine
aminotransferase; anti-HBs, antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen; PCR, polymerase
chain reaction; HCV, hepatitis C virus; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus;
HDV, hepatitis D virus; HBIG, hepatitis B immunoglobulin; AFP, alpha fetoprotein;
US, ultrasonography; IFN- , interferon-alfa; pegIFN- , pegylated interferonalfa.
From the 1Division of Gastroenterology, University of Michigan Medical Center,
Ann Arbor, MI; and the 2Liver Disease and Hepatitis Program, Alaska Native
Medical Center and Arctic Investigations Program, Centers for Disease Control,
Anchorage, AK.
Address reprint requests to: Anna S. F. Lok, M.D., Division of Gastroenterology,
University of Michigan Medical Center, 3912 Taubman Center, Box 0362, Ann
Arbor, MI 48109-0362. E-mail: [email protected]; fax: 734-936-7392.
Copyright © 2007 by the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases.
Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com).
DOI 10.1002/hep.21513
Potential conflict of interest: Dr. McMahon’s spouse owns stock in GlaxoSmith-
Kline. Dr. Lok is a consultant for, received grants, and is on the Scientific Advisory
Board of, Bristol-Myers Squibb, GlaxoSmithKline, Idenix, Roche, Gilead, and
Innogenetics. She is also on the Scientific Advisory Board of Pharmasset. Dr. Lok
received grants from Schering-Plough.
Please refer to www.aasld.org for disclosures by Practice Guidelines Committee
members.
507

side the body for prolonged periods.15,16 The risk of developing
chronic HBV infection after acute exposure
ranges from 90% in newborns of HBeAg-positive mothers
to 25% to 30% in infants and children under 5 and to
less than 5% in adults.17-21 In addition, immunosuppressed
persons are more likely to develop chronic HBV
infection after acute infection.22,23 In countries such as
the United States where most of the infants, children, and
adolescents have been vaccinated against HBV, the risk of
transmitting HBV in daycare centers or schools is extremely
low and HBsAg-positive children should not be
isolated or prevented from participating in activities including
sports.
Table 2 displays the population and high risk groups
that should be screened for HBV infection and immunized
if seronegative. The tests used to screen persons for
HBV should include HBsAg and hepatitis B surface antibody
(anti-HBs). Alternatively, hepatitis B core antibody
(anti-HBc) can be utilized as long as those who test
positive are further tested for both HBsAg and anti-HBs
to differentiate infection from immunity.
Some persons may test positive for anti-HBc but not
HBsAg or anti-HBs. The finding of isolated anti-HBc can
occur for a variety of reasons. (1) Anti-HBc may be an
indicator of chronic HBV infection; in these persons,
HBsAg had decreased to undetectable levels but HBV
DNA often remains detectable, more so in the liver than
in serum. This situation is not uncommon among persons
from areas with high prevalence of HBV infection and in
those with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or hepatitis
C virus (HCV) infection.24 (2) Anti-HBc may be a
marker of immunity after recovery from a prior infection.
In these persons, anti-HBs had decreased to undetectable
levels but anamnestic response can be observed after one
dose of HBV vaccine.25 (3) Anti-HBc may be a false positive
test result particularly in persons from low prevalence
areas with no risk factors for HBV infection. These individuals
respond to hepatitis B vaccination similar to persons
without any HBV seromarkers.9,25,26 (4) Anti-HBc
may be the only marker of HBV infection during the
window phase of acute hepatitis B; these persons should
test positive for anti-HBc IgM.
Recommendations for Persons Who Should Be
Tested for HBV Infection:
1. The following groups should be tested for HBV
infection: persons born in hyperendemic areas (Table
2), men who have sex with men, persons who have ever
used injecting drugs, dialysis patients, HIV-infected
individuals, pregnant women, and family members,
household members, and sexual contacts of HBV-infected
persons. Testing for HBsAg and anti-HBs
should be performed, and seronegative persons should
be vaccinated. (I)
Counseling and Prevention of Hepatitis B
Patients with chronic HBV infection should be counseled
regarding lifestyle modifications and prevention of
transmission and the importance of life long monitoring.
No specific dietary measures have been shown to have any
effect on the progression of chronic hepatitis B. However,
heavy use of alcohol ( 20 g/d in women and  30 g/d in
men) may be a risk factor for the development of cirrhosis.
27,28
Carriers of HBV should be counseled regarding transmission
to others (see Table 3). Household members and
Table 1. Quality of Evidence on Which a
Recommendation is Based
Grade Definition
I Randomized controlled trials
II-1 Controlled trials without randomization
II-2 Cohort or case-control analytic studies
II-3 Multiple time series, dramatic uncontrolled experiments
III Opinions of respected authorities, descriptive epidemiology
Table 2. Groups at High Risk for HBV Infection Who Should
Be Screened9
. Individuals born in areas of high# and intermediate prevalence rates† for
HBV including immigrants and adopted children^*
—South Asia (except Sri Lanka)
—Africa
—South Pacific Islands
—Middle East (except Cyprus)
—European Mediterranean: Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal and Spain
—The Arctic (indigenous populations)
—South America: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Guyana, Suriname,
Venezuela and Amazon region of Colombia and Peru
—Independent states of former Soviet Union
—Eastern Europe, including Russia, except Hungary
—Caribbean: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Granada,
Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and
Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago and Turks and Caicos.
. Other high risk groups recommended for screening
—Household and sexual contacts of HBsAg-positive persons*
—Persons who have ever injected drugs*
—Persons with multiple sexual partners or history of sexually transmitted
disease*
—Men who have sex with men*
—Inmates of correctional facilities*
—Individuals with chronically elevated ALT or AST*
—Individuals infected with HCV or HIV*
—Patients undergoing renal dialysis*
—All pregnant women
^If HBsAg-positive persons are found in the first generation, subsequent
generations should be tested
#HBsAg prevalence   8%
†HBsAg prevalence 2%-7%
*Those who are seronegative should receive hepatitis B vaccine
508 LOK AND MCMAHON HEPATOLOGY, February 2007

steady sexual partners are at increased risk of HBV infection
and therefore should be vaccinated if they test negative
for HBV serologic markers.9 For casual sex partners
or steady partners who have not been tested or have not
completed the full immunization series, barrier protection
methods should be employed. HBsAg-positive
women who are pregnant should be counseled to make
sure they inform their providers so hepatitis B immune
globulin (HBIG) and hepatitis B vaccine can be administered
to their newborn immediately after delivery.9 HBIG
and concurrent hepatitis B vaccine have been shown to be
95% efficacious in the prevention of perinatal transmission
of HBV, the efficacy is lower for maternal carriers
with very high serum HBV DNA levels ( 8 log10 IU/
ml).9,29 Transmission of HBV from infected health care
workers to patients has also been shown to occur in rare
instances.30,31 ForHBVcarriers who are health care workers,
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends
that those who are HBeAg-positive should not
perform exposure prone procedures without prior counseling
and advice from an expert review panel regarding
under what circumstances, if any, they should be allowed
to perform these procedures.32 These circumstances
would include notifying prospective patients of their
HBV status prior to procedures. While theCDCdoes not
use serum HBV DNA levels as criteria for restriction of
clinical procedures, several European countries use a
threshold level varying from 200 to 20,000 IU/ml to determine
if HBsAg-positive health care workers are allowed
to perform exposure prone procedures.33,34
The risk of infection after blood transfusion and transplantation
of non-hepatic solid organs (kidneys, lungs,
heart) from persons with isolated anti-HBc is low: 0% to
13%.35 The risk of infection after transplantation of liver
from HBsAg-negative, anti-HBc-positive donors has
been reported to be as high as 75% and is related to the
HBV immune status of the recipients.36,37 If anti-HBcpositive
donor organs are used for HBV seronegative recipients,
antiviral therapy should be administered to
prevent de novo HBV infection. While the optimal duration
of prophylactic therapy has not been determined, a
limited duration such as 6-12 months may be sufficient
for transplantation of non-hepatic solid organs. For transplantation
of livers, life-long antiviral therapy is recommended,
but whether HBIG is necessary is unclear.38
Hepatitis B Vaccination
Recommendations for vaccination are outlined in a
recent CDC and Advisory Committee on Immunization
Practices (ACIP) guideline.9,9a Follow-up testing is recommended
for those who remain at risk of infection such
as health care workers, infants of HBsAg-positive mothers
and sexual partners of persons with chronic HBV infection.
Furthermore, annual testing of hemodialysis patients
is recommended since immunity wanes rapidly in
these individuals who are at a high risk of continued exposure
to HBV.
Recommendations for Counseling and Prevention
of Transmission of Hepatitis B from Individuals with
Chronic HBV Infection:
2. Carriers should be counseled regarding prevention
of transmission of HBV (Table 3). (III)
3. Sexual and household contacts of carriers who
are negative for HBV seromarkers should receive hepatitis
B vaccination. (III)
4. Newborns of HBV-infected mothers should receive
HBIG and hepatitis B vaccine at delivery and
complete the recommended vaccination series. (I)
5. Persons who remain at risk for HBV infection
such as infants of HBsAg-positive mothers, health care
workers, dialysis patients, and sexual partners of carriers
should be tested for response to vaccination. (III)
. Postvaccination testing should be performed at 9
to 15 months of age in infants of carrier mothers and
1-2 months after the last dose in other persons. (III)
. Follow-up testing of vaccine responders is recommended
annually for chronic hemodialysis patients.
(III)
6. Abstinence or only limited use of alcohol is recommended
in hepatitis B carriers. (III)
7. Persons who are positive only for anti-HBc and
who are from a low endemic area with no risk factors
for HBV should be given the full series of hepatitis B
vaccine. (II-2)
HBV Genotypes
Eight genotypes ofHBVhave been identified labeled A
through H.39,40 The prevalence of HBV genotypes varies
depending on the geographical location. All known HBV
genotypes have been found in the United States, with the
Table 3. Recommendations for Infected Persons Regarding
Prevention of Transmission of HBV to Others
Persons who are HBsAg-positive should
. Have sexual contacts vaccinated
. Use barrier protection during sexual intercourse if partner not vaccinated or
naturally immune
. Not share toothbrushes or razors
. Cover open cuts and scratches
. Clean blood spills with detergent or bleach
. Not donate blood, organs or sperms
Children and adults who are HBsAg-positive:
. Can participate in all activities including contact sports
. Should not be excluded from daycare or school participation and should
not be isolated from other children
. Can share food, utensils or kiss others
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007 LOK AND MCMAHON 509

prevalence of genotypes A, B, C, D and E-G being 35%,
22%, 31%, 10%, and 2%, respectively.41
Recent data suggest that HBV genotypes may play an
important role in the progression of HBV-related liver
disease as well as response to interferon therapy.39 Studies
from Asia found that HBV genotype B is associated with
HBeAg seroconversion at an earlier age, more sustained
remission after HBeAg seroconversion, less active hepatic
necroinflammation, a slower rate of progression to cirrhosis,
and a lower rate of HCC development compared to
genotype C.42-47 The relation between other HBV genotypes
and liver disease progression is unclear.
Several studies of standard interferon-alpha (IFN- )
and one study of pegylated IFN-alpha (pegIFN- ) therapy
showed that genotypes A and B were associated with
higher rates of HBeAg seroconversion compared to genotypes
C and D.48-51 Another study of pegIFN- reported
that genotype A but not genotype B was associated with a
higher rate of HBeAg seroconversion.52 Studies of nucleos(
t)ide analogue (NA) therapies have not shown any
relation between HBV genotypes and response. Thus,
additional data on the relation between HBV genotypes
and treatment response are needed before testing for
HBV genotypes in clinical practice is recommended.
Terminology and Natural History of Chronic
HBV Infection
The consensus definition and diagnostic criteria for
clinical terms relating to HBV infection adopted at the
National Institutes of Health (NIH) conferences on Management
of Hepatitis B in 2000 and 2006 are summarized
in Table 4.3,4
During the initial phase of chronic HBV infection,
serum HBV DNA levels are high and HBeAg is present.
The majority of carriers eventually loses HBeAg and develop
antibody to HBeAg (anti-HBe).13,53-56
Among individuals with perinatally acquired HBV infection,
a large percent of HBeAg-positive patients have
high serum HBVDNAbut normal ALT levels.57,58 These
patients are considered to be in the “immune tolerant”
phase. Many of these patients develop HBeAg-positive
chronic hepatitis B with elevated ALT levels in later
life.56,59,60 In sub-Saharan Africa, Alaska, and Mediterranean
countries, transmission of HBV usually occurs from
person to person during childhood.20,61-63 In these populations
most children who are HBeAg positive have elevated
ALT levels and seroconversion to anti-HBe is
common near or shortly after the onset of puberty. In
developed countries, HBV infection is usually acquired
during adulthood through sexual transmission and injecting
drug use.8,9,64 Very little longitudinal data are available,
but liver disease is generally present in persons with
high HBV DNA levels.

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Among carriers with elevated ALT levels, the rate of
clearance of HBeAg averages between 8% and 12% per
year53-56,65 but is much lower in carriers who are in the
immune tolerant phase (mostly Asian children and young
adults with normal ALT levels)57,58 and in immunocompromised
subjects.23,66 HBeAg clearance may follow an
exacerbation of hepatitis, manifested by an elevation of
ALT levels.54,56 Older age, higher ALT, and HBV genotype
B (vs. C) are associated with higher rates of spontaneous
HBeAg clearance.
Table 4. Glossary of Clinical Terms Used in HBV Infection
Definitions
Chronic hepatitis B
Chronic necroinflammatory disease of the liver caused by persistent infection
with hepatitis B virus. Chronic hepatitis B can be subdivided into HBeAg
positive and HBeAg negative chronic hepatitis B.
Inactive HBsAg carrier state
Persistent HBV infection of the liver without significant, ongoing
necroinflammatory disease
Resolved hepatitis B
Previous HBV infection without further virologic, biochemical or histological
evidence of active virus infection or disease
Acute exacerbation or flare of hepatitis B
Intermittent elevations of aminotransferase activity to more than 10 times the
upper limit of normal and more than twice the baseline value
Reactivation of hepatitis B
Reappearance of active necroinflammatory disease of the liver in a person
known to have the inactive HBsAg carrier state or resolved hepatitis B
HBeAg clearance
Loss of HBeAg in a person who was previously HBeAg positive
HBeAg seroconversion
Loss of HBeAg and detection of anti-HBe in a person who was previously
HBeAg positive and anti-HBe negative
HBeAg reversion
Reappearance of HBeAg in a person who was previously HBeAg negative,
anti-HBe positive
Diagnostic criteria
Chronic hepatitis B
1. HBsAg     6 months
2. Serum HBV DNA  20,000 IU/ml (105copies/ml), lower values 2,000-
20,000 IU/ml (104-105 copies/ml) are often seen in HBeAg-negative
chronic hepatitis B
3. Persistent or intermittent elevation in ALT/AST levels
4. Liver biopsy showing chronic hepatitis with moderate or severe
necroinflammation
Inactive HBsAg carrier state
1. HBsAg    6 months
2. HBeAg-, anti-HBe 
3. Serum HBV DNA  2,000 IU/ml
4. Persistently normal ALT/AST levels
5. Liver biopsy confirms absence of significant hepatitis
Resolved hepatitis B
1. Previous known history of acute or chronic hepatitis B or the presence of
anti-HBc   anti-HBs
2. HBsAg 
3. Undetectable serum HBV DNA#
4. Normal ALT levels
#Very low levels may be detectable using sensitive PCR assays
510 LOK AND MCMAHON HEPATOLOGY, February 2007

After spontaneous HBeAg seroconversion, 67% to
80% of carriers have low or undetectable HBV DNA
and normal ALT levels with minimal or no necroin-
flammation on liver biopsy — the “inactive carrier
state.”13,53-56,62,65,67 Approximately 4% to 20% of inactive
carriers have one or more reversions back to HBeAg.
Among those who remain anti-HBe positive, 10% to
30% continue to have elevated ALT and high HBV DNA
levels after HBeAg seroconversion, and roughly 10% to
20% of inactive carriers may have reactivation of HBV
replication and exacerbations of hepatitis after years of
quiescence.56,60,65,67,68 Therefore, serial testing is necessary
to determine if an HBsAg-positive, HBeAg-negative
carrier is truly in the “inactive carrier state” and life long
follow-up is required to confirm that the inactive state is
maintained. Clearance of HBeAg, whether spontaneous
or after antiviral therapy, reduces the risk of hepatic decompensation
and improves survival.69-77
Moderate or high levels of persistent HBV replication
or reactivation of HBV replication following a period of
quiescence after HBeAg seroconversion leads to HBeAgnegative
chronic hepatitis B, which is characterized by
HBV DNA levels 2,000 IU/ml and continued necroin-
flammation in the liver.78Most patients with HBeAg-negative
chronic hepatitis B harbor HBV variants in the
precore or core promoter region.79-85 Patients with
HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B tend to have lower
serum HBV DNA levels than those with HBeAg-positive
chronic hepatitis B (2,000-20 million vs. 200,000-2 billion
IU/ml) and are more likely to run a fluctuating
course. These patients are also older and have more advanced
liver disease since HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis
B represents a later stage in the course of chronic
HBV infection.78,83,86
Approximately 0.5% of HBsAg carriers will clear HBsAg
yearly; most will develop anti-HBs.65,87 However, low
levels of HBV DNA remain detectable in the serum in up
to half of these persons. The prognosis is improved in
carriers who cleared HBsAg but HCC has been reported
years after clearance of HBsAg, particularly in those who
were older or had progressed to cirrhosis before HBsAg
clearance.65,87-91
Factors Associated with Progression of HBV-related
Liver Disease
Host and viral risk factors associated with increased
rates of cirrhosis include older age (longer duration of
infection), HBV genotype C, high levels of HBV DNA,
habitual alcohol consumption, and concurrent infection
with hepatitisCvirus (HCV), hepatitisDvirus (HDV) or
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).92,93 Environmental
factors that are associated with an increase risk of
cirrhosis or HCC include heavy alcohol consumption,
carcinogens such as aflatoxin, and, more recently smoking.
Host and viral risk factors for HCC include male gender,
family history of HCC, older age, history of reversions
from anti-HBe to HBeAg, presence of cirrhosis,
HBV genotype C, core promoter mutation, and coinfection
with HCV.65,69,92,93 Although cirrhosis is a strong
risk factor for HCC, 30% to 50% ofHCCassociated with
HBV occur in the absence of cirrhosis.11 Recently, several
prospective follow-up studies of large cohorts of carriers
from Asia found that the presence of HBeAg and high
levels of HBV DNA were independent risk factors for the
subsequent development of cirrhosis and HCC.47,94-97
Given that most of the carriers in these studies likely acquired
HBV infection perinatally and their mean age at
enrollment was around 40 years, these data indicate that
high levels of HBV replication persisting for more than 4
decades are associated with an increased risk of HCC.
However, due to the fluctuating nature of chronic HBV
infection, the accuracy of one high HBV DNA level at a
single time point in predicting the prognosis of individual
carriers may be limited and the risk of HCC in a younger
carrier who is HBeAg-positive with one high HBV DNA
level may be substantially lower.
Co-infection with HCV, HDV or HIV
HCV. Coexistent HCV infection has been estimated
to be present in 10% to 15% of patients with chronic
hepatitis B and is more common among injecting drug
users.98 Acute coinfection with HBV and HCV may
shorten the duration of HBs antigenemia and lower the
peak serum aminotransferase concentrations compared
with acute HBV infection alone.99,100 However, acute
coinfection of HCV and HBV, or acute HCV on preexisting
chronic HBV have also been reported to increase
the risk of severe hepatitis and fulminant hepatic failure.
101
Patients with dual HBV and HCV infection have a
higher rate of cirrhosis and HCC development compared
to patients infected by either virus alone.102,103
HDV. HDVis a satellite virus, which is dependent on
HBV for the production of envelope proteins.104 HBV/
HDVcoinfection most commonly occurs in the Mediterranean
area and parts of South America. The availability
of HBV vaccines and public health education on the prevention
of transmission of HBV infection has led to a
significant decline in the prevalence of HDV infection in
the past decade.105 HDV infection can occur in two
forms. The first form is caused by the coinfection of HBV
and HDV; this usually results in a more severe acute hepatitis
with a higher mortality rate than is seen with acute
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007 LOK AND MCMAHON 511

hepatitis B alone,104,106 but rarely results in chronic infection.
A second form is a result of a superinfection ofHDV
in a HBV carrier and can manifest as a severe “acute”
hepatitis in previously asymptomatic HBV carriers or as
an exacerbation of underlying chronic hepatitis B. Unlike
coinfection, HDV superinfection in HBV carriers almost
always results in chronic infection with both viruses. A
higher proportion of persons with chronic HBV/HDV
coinfection develop cirrhosis, hepatic decompensation,
andHCCcompared to those with chronicHBVinfection
alone.107,108
HIV. Studies have found that between 6% and 13%
of persons infected with HIV are also coinfected with
HBV. Coinfection with HIV is more common in persons
from regions where both viruses are endemic, such as
sub-Saharan Africa.9 Individuals with HBV and HIV
coinfection tend to have higher levels of HBV DNA,
lower rates of spontaneous HBeAg seroconversion, more
severe liver disease, and increased rates of liver related
mortality.109-112 In addition, severe flares of hepatitis can
occur in HIV co-infected patients with low CD4 counts
who experience immune reconstitution after initiation of
highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).110 Elevated
liver enzymes in patients with HBV/HIV coinfection
can be caused by other factors besidesHBVincluding
HAART and certain opportunistic infections such as cytomegalovirus
and Mycobacterium Avium.
Patients with HIV infection can have high levels of
HBV DNA and hepatic necroinflammation with anti-
HBc but not HBsAg, so called “occult HBV”.110 Therefore
it is prudent to test all HIV infected persons for both
HBsAg and anti-HBc and if either is positive, to test for
HBV DNA. Persons who are negative for all HBV seromarkers
should receive hepatitis B vaccine. If feasible,
hepatitis B vaccine should be given when CD4 cell counts
are  200/ul as response to vaccine is poor below this
level. Persons with CD4 counts below 200 should receive
HAART first and HBV vaccine when CD4 counts rise
above 200/uL.110,111
Evaluation and Management of Patients
with Chronic HBV Infection
Initial Evaluation
The initial evaluation of patients with chronic HBV
infection should include a thorough history and physical
examination, with special emphasis on risk factors for
coinfection, alcohol use, and family history of HBV infection
and liver cancer. Laboratory tests should include
assessment of liver disease, markers of HBV replication,
and tests for coinfection with HCV, HDV, or HIV in
those at risk (Table 5). Vaccination for hepatitis A should
be administered to persons with chronic hepatitis B as per
Centers for Disease Control recommendations.113
HBV DNA Assays
Most HBV DNA assays used in clinical practice are
based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification
with lower limits of detection of 50-200 IU/ml (250-
1,000 copies/ml),114 and a limited dynamic range, up to
4-5 log10 IU/ml. Recently, HBV DNA assays that utilize
real-time PCR technology with improved sensitivity
(5-10 IU/ml) and wider dynamic range (up to 8-9 log10
IU/ml) have become available.115 Quantification of serum
HBV DNA is a crucial component in the evaluation
of patients with chronic HBV infection and in the assessment
of the efficacy of antiviral treatment.
A major dilemma in the interpretation of serum HBV
DNA levels is the determination of cutoff values used to
define treatment indications and response. Because HBV
DNA persists even in persons who have serological recovery
from acute HBV infection,116 low levels of HBV
DNA may not be associated with progressive liver disease
and viral clearance is an unrealistic treatment endpoint.
An arbitrary value of 20,000 IU/ml ( 105 copies/ml) was
chosen as a diagnostic criterion for chronic hepatitis B at
the 2000 NIH conference.3 However, chronic hepatitis,
Table 5. Evaluation of Patients with Chronic HBV Infection
Initial evaluation
1. History and physical examination
2. Family History of liver disease, HCC
3. Laboratory tests to assess liver disease—complete blood counts with
platelets, hepatic panel and prothrombin time
4. Tests for HBV replication—HBeAg/anti-HBe, HBV DNA
5. Tests to rule out viral coinfections—anti-HCV, anti-HDV (in persons from
countries where HDV infection is common and in those with history of
injection drug use), and anti-HIV in those at risk
6. Tests to screen for HCC–AFP at baseline and, in high risk patients,
ultrasound
7. Consider liver biopsy to grade and stage liver disease - for patients who
meet criteria for chronic hepatitis
Suggested follow-up for patients not considered for treatment
HBeAg , HBV DNA   20,000 IU/ml and normal ALT
. ALT q 3-6 months, more often if ALT becomes elevated
. If ALT levels are between 1-2   ULN, recheck ALT q1-3 months; consider
liver biopsy if age 40, ALT borderline or mildly elevated on serial tests.
Consider treatment if biopsy shows moderate/severe inflammation or
significant fibrosis
. If ALT   2   ULN for 3-6 months and HBeAg , HBV DNA   20,000 IU/
ml, consider liver biopsy and treatment.
. Consider screening for HCC in relevant population
Inactive HBsAg carrier state
. ALT q 3 months for 1 year, if persistently normal, ALT q 6-12 months
. If ALT   1-2   ULN, check serum HBV DNA level and exclude other causes
of liver disease. Consider liver biopsy if ALT borderline or mildly elevated on
serial tests or if HBV DNA persistently  20,000 IU/ml. Consider treatment if
biopsy shows moderate/severe inflammation or significant fibrosis
. Consider screening for HCC in relevant population
512 LOK AND MCMAHON HEPATOLOGY, February 2007

cirrhosis and HCC have been found in patients with
lower HBV DNA levels. Also, some patients with chronic
hepatitis B have widely fluctuating HBV DNA levels that
may vary from undetectable to  2,000,000 IU/ml.117
Thus, serial monitoring of HBV DNA levels is more important
than any single arbitrary cutoff value in prognostication
and in determining the need for treatment. It is
now recognized that lower HBV DNA levels (3-5 log10
IU/ml) may be associated with progressive liver disease
and may warrant treatment, particularly in those who are
HBeAg-negative or have already developed cirrhosis.
Liver Biopsy
The purpose of a liver biopsy is to assess the degree of
liver damage and to rule out other causes of liver disease.
However, it must be recognized that liver histology can
improve significantly in patients who have sustained response
to antiviral therapy or spontaneous HBeAg seroconversion.
Liver histology also can worsen rapidly in
patients who have recurrent exacerbations or reactivations
of hepatitis.
Liver biopsy is most useful in persons who do not meet
clear cut guidelines for treatment listed below. Recent
studies suggest that the upper limits of normal for ALT
and AST should be decreased to 30 U/l for men and 19
U/l for women.118 HBV infected patients with ALT values
close to the upper limit of normal may have abnormal
histology and can be at increased risk of mortality from
liver disease especially those above age 40. Thus, decisions
on liver biopsy should take into consideration age, the
new suggested upper limits of normal for ALT, HBeAg
status, HBV DNA levels, and other clinical features suggestive
of chronic liver disease or portal hypertension.
Recommendations for Initial Evaluation of Persons
with Chronic HBV Infection:
8. Initial evaluation of persons newly diagnosed
with chronic HBV infection should include history,
physical examination and laboratory testing as outlined
in Table 5. (III)
9. All persons with chronic hepatitis B not immune
to hepatitis A should receive 2 doses of hepatitis A
vaccine 6 to 18 months apart. (II-3)
Follow-up of Patients Not Initially Considered for
Treatment
HBeAg-Positive Patients with High Serum HBV
DNA but Normal ALT Levels. These patients should
be monitored at 3 to 6 month intervals (Table 5, Fig. 1).
More frequent monitoring should be performed when
ALT levels become elevated.54,56,60,119 Patients who remain
HBeAg positive with HBV DNA levels greater than
20,000 IU/ml after a 3 to6month period of elevated ALT
levels greater than two times the upper limit of normal
should be considered for liver biopsy and antiviral treatment
(Fig. 1). Liver biopsy and treatment should also be
considered in patients with persistent borderline normal
or slightly elevated ALT levels particularly if the patient is
above the age of 40. Liver biopsy is usually not necessary
in young patients (below 30) who are HBeAg-positive
and have persistently normal ALT.
HBeAg-negative, anti-HBe Positive Patients with
Normal ALT Levels and HBV DNA <2,000IU/ml
(Inactive HBsAg Carriers). These patients should be
monitored with ALT determination every 3 months during
the first year to verify that they are truly in the “inactive
carrier state” and then every 6-12 months.86,117 If the
ALT level is subsequently found to be elevated, more
frequent monitoring is needed. In addition, an evaluation
into the cause of ALT elevation, including HBV DNA
Fig. 1. Algorithm for follow-up of HBV carriers who are HBeAg-positive
(A) or HBeAg-negative (B). ALT, alanine aminotransferase; ULN, upper
limit of normal; Rx, treat; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma.
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007 LOK AND MCMAHON 513

tests, should be initiated if it persists or recurs (Table 5,
Fig. 1).
Recommendations for Monitoring Patients with
Chronic HBV Infection (Fig. 1):
10. HBeAg-positive and HBeAg-negative patients
who meet criteria for chronic hepatitis B (Table 4)
should be evaluated for treatment. (I)
11. HBeAg-positive patients:
. HBeAg-positive patients with persistently normal
ALT should be tested for ALT at 3-6 month intervals.
ALT along with HBV DNA should be tested more
often when ALT levels become elevated. HBeAg status
should be checked every 6-12 months. (III)
. Patients who remain HBeAg positive with HBV
DNA levels >20,000 IU/ml after a 3-6 month period
of elevated ALT levels between 1-2   ULN, or who
remain HBeAg positive with HBV DNA levels
>20,000 IU/ml and are>40 years old, should be considered
for liver biopsy, and treatment should be considered
if biopsy showsmoderate/severe inflammation
or significant fibrosis. (III) Patients who remain
HBeAg positive with HBV DNA levels >20,000
IU/ml after a 3-6 month period of elevated ALT levels
>2   ULN should be considered for treatment. (III).
12. HBeAg-negative patients:
. HBeAg-negative patients with normal ALT and
HBV DNA <2,000 IU/ml should be tested for ALT
every 3 months during the first year to verify that they
are truly in the “inactive carrier state” and then every
6-12 months. (III)
. Tests for HBV DNA and more frequent monitoring
should be performed if ALT or AST increases
above the normal limit. (III)
Periodic Screening for HCC. A recent AASLD practice
guideline on HCC has been published.120 Of the two
tests prospectively evaluated as screening tools for HCC,
alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) and ultrasound (US), the sensitivity,
specificity, and diagnostic accuracy of US are
higher than those of AFP. The AASLD Practice Guideline
for HCC recommended surveillance of carriers at
high risk of HCC with US every 6-12 months and AFP
alone when US is not available or cost is an issue.120 Because
the interpretation of US findings is operator dependent,
clinicians may choose to employ both US and AFP
for HCC surveillance.
Recommendations for HCC Screening:
13. HBV carriers at high risk for HCC such as Asian
men over 40 years and Asian women over 50 years of
age, persons with cirrhosis, persons with a family history
of HCC, Africans over 20 years of age, and any
carrier over 40 years with persistent or intermittent
ALT elevation and/or high HBV DNA level >2,000
IU/ml should be screened with US examination every
6-12 months. (II-2)
14. For HBV carriers at high risk for HCC who are
living in areas where US is not readily available, periodic
screening with AFP should be considered. (II-2)
Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis B
The aims of treatment of chronic hepatitis B are to
achieve sustained suppression of HBV replication and remission
of liver disease. The ultimate goal is to prevent
cirrhosis, hepatic failure and HCC. Parameters used to
assess treatment response include normalization of serum
ALT, decrease in serum HBV DNA level, loss of HBeAg
with or without detection of anti-HBe, and improvement
in liver histology. At the 2000 and 2006 NIH conferences
on Management of Hepatitis B, it was proposed that responses
to antiviral therapy of chronic hepatitis B be categorized
as biochemical (BR), virologic (VR), or
histologic (HR), and as on-therapy or sustained off-therapy
(Table 6).3,4 Standardized definitions of primary nonresponse,
breakthrough and relapse were also proposed.
Currently, six therapeutic agents have been approved for
the treatment of adults with chronic hepatitis B in the
United States.
While IFNs are administered for predefined durations,
NAs are usually administered until specific endpoints are
Table 6. Definition of Response to Antiviral Therapy of
Chronic Hepatitis B
Category of response
Biochemical (BR) Decrease in serum ALT to within the normal range
Virologic (VR) Decrease in serum HBV DNA to undetectable
levels by PCR assays, and loss of HBeAg in
patients who were initially HBeAg positive
Primary non-response (not applicable to interferon therapy)
Decrease in serum HBV DNA by  2 log10 IU/ml
after at least 24 weeks of therapy
Virologic relapse
Increase in serum HBV DNA of 1 log10 IU/ml
after discontinuation of treatment in at least
two determinations more than 4 weeks apart
Histologic (HR) Decrease in histology activity index by at least 2
points and no worsening of fibrosis score
compared to pre-treatment liver biopsy
Complete (CR) Fulfill criteria of biochemical and virological
response and loss of HBsAg
Time of assessment
On-therapy During therapy
Maintained Persist throughout the course of treatment
End-of-treatment At the end of a defined course of therapy
Off-therapy After discontinuation of therapy
Sustained (SR-6) 6 months after discontinuation of therapy
Sustained (SR-12) 12 months after discontinuation of therapy
514 LOK AND MCMAHON HEPATOLOGY, February 2007

achieved. The difference in approach is related to the
additional immune modulatory effects of IFN. For
HBeAg-positive patients, viral suppression with currently
approved treatments can be sustained in 50%-90% patients
if treatment is stopped after HBeAg seroconversion
is achieved. For HBeAg-negative patients, relapse is frequent
even when HBV DNA has been suppressed to undetectable
levels by PCR assays for more than a year; thus,
the endpoint for stopping treatment is unclear.
Antiviral Resistance

IC

A major concern with long-term NA treatment is the
selection of antiviral-resistant mutations. The rate at
which resistant mutants are selected is related to pretreatment
serum HBV DNA level, rapidity of viral suppression,
duration of treatment, and prior exposure to NA
therapies.121 The incidence of genotypic resistance also
varies with the sensitivity of the methods used for detection
of resistant mutations and the patient population
being tested. Table 7 summarizes the definition of terms
commonly used in describing antiviral resistance.
Among the approved NA therapies for hepatitis B,
lamivudine is associated with the highest and entecavir
with the lowest rate of drug resistance in NA-nai¨ve patients.
The first manifestation of antiviral resistance is
virologic breakthrough which is defined as a  1 log10
(10-fold) increase in serumHBVDNAfrom nadir during
treatment in a patient who had an initial virologic response
(Fig. 2). Up to 30% of virologic breakthrough
observed in clinical trials is related to medication noncompliance,
thus, compliance should be ascertained before
testing for genotypic resistance. Serum HBV DNA
levels tend to be low initially because most antiviral-resistant
mutants have decreased replication fitness compared
with wild-type HBV.122 However, compensatory mutations
that can restore replication fitness frequently emerge
during continued treatment leading to a progressive increase
in serum HBV DNA that may exceed pretreatment
levels. Virologic breakthrough is usually followed by biochemical
breakthrough, which is defined as elevation in
ALT during treatment in a patient who had achieved
initial response. Emergence of antiviral-resistant mutations
can lead to negation of the initial response, and in
some cases hepatitis flares and hepatic decompensation.
Antiviral-resistant mutations can be detected months and
sometimes years before biochemical breakthrough. Thus,
early detection and intervention can prevent hepatitis
flares and hepatic decompensation, and this is particularly
important in patients who are immunosuppressed and
those with underlying cirrhosis. Another potential consequence
of antiviral-resistant mutations is cross-resistance
with other NAs, thus limiting future treatment options.
Recently, there have also been reports of multi-drug resistant
mutants in patients who have received sequential NA
monotherapy.123,124
Judicious use of NA in patients with chronic hepatitis
B is the most effective prophylaxis against the development
of antiviral-resistant HBV. Thus, patients with
minimal disease and those who are unlikely to achieve
sustained response should not be treated with NA, particularly
if they are young ( 30 years). When possible, the
most potent NA with the lowest rate of genotypic resistance
should be administered and compliance reinforced.
Although combination therapy has been shown to pre-
Fig. 2. Serial changes in serum HBV DNA and ALT levels in association
with emergence of antiviral-resistant HBV mutants. The first manifestation
of antiviral resistance is the detection of resistant mutations (genotypic
resistance). Resistant mutations may be detected at the same time or
prior to virologic breakthrough (increase in serum HBV DNA by  1 log
above nadir). With time, serum HBV DNA levels continue to increase
(viral rebound) and ALT become abnormal (biochemical breakthrough).
In some patients, emergence of antiviral resistance leads to a marked
increase in ALT (hepatitis flare). ALT, alanine aminotransferase.
Table 7. Definition of Terms Relating to Antiviral Resistance
to Nucleoside Analogue (NA) Treatment
Virologic breakthrough Increase in serum HBV DNA by  1 log10 (10-fold)
above nadir after achieving virologic response,
during continued treatment
Viral rebound Increase in serum HBV DNA to   20,000 IU/ml or
above pretreatment level after achieving virologic
response, during continued treatment
Biochemical breakthrough Increase in ALT above upper limit of normal after
achieving normalization, during continued
treatment
Genotypic resistance Detection of mutations that have been shown in in
vitro studies to confer resistance to the NA that
is being administered
Phenotypic resistance In vitro confirmation that the mutation detected
decreases susceptibility (as demonstrated by
increase in inhibitory concentrations) to the NA
administered
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007 LOK AND MCMAHON 515

vent antiviral resistance in patients with HIV infection,
the promise of combination therapy has not yet been
fulfilled for patients with HBV infection.
Once antiviral-resistant HBV mutants have been selected,
they are archived (retained in the virus population)
even if treatment is stopped and lamivudine-resistant
HBV mutants had been detected up to four years after
withdrawal of lamivudine.124
Interferon
Interferons (IFNs) have antiviral, antiproliferative, and
immunomodulatory effects. IFN- has been shown to be
effective in suppressing HBV replication and in inducing
remission of liver disease. However, its efficacy is limited
to a small percentage of highly selected patients.
Efficacy in Various Categories of Patients.
1. HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B with the following
(Table 8):
a. Persistent or intermittent elevation in ALT. This pattern
is seen frequently in chronic hepatitis B patients.
Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials found that
a significantly higher percentage of IFN- –treated patients
had a virologic response compared with untreated
controls. 125 High pretreatment ALT (greater than twice
the upper limit of normal) and lower levels of serum HBV
DNA are the most important predictors of a response to
IFN- therapy.126-128
b. Normal ALT. This pattern is usually seen in children
or young adults with perinatally acquired HBV infection.
HBeAg seroconversion occurs in less than 10% of these
patients.128-131
c. Asian patients. Trials in Asian patients with HBeAgpositive
chronic hepatitis B found that the response in
patients with normal ALT was poor,131 but the response
in patients with elevated ALT was similar to that in Caucasian
patients.128
d. Children. The efficacy of IFN- is similar to that in
adults.132-135 However, most children, particularly those
with perinatally acquired HBV infection have normal
ALT and less than 10% of these children who received
IFN- cleared HBeAg.129,130
2. HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B (Table 9)
Results of four randomized controlled trials of
IFN-  showed that the end-of-treatment response
ranged from 38% to 90% in treated patients compared
with only 0% to 37% of controls.136-139 However, approximately
half of the responders relapse when therapy
is discontinued, and relapses can occur up to 5
years post-therapy.140 Longer duration of treatment,
24 months verses 6-12 months, may increase the rate of
sustained response.136,141
3. Nonresponders to IFN- treatment
Most studies found that retreatment of IFN-  nonresponders
with IFN-  alone was associated with a very
low rate of response. Limited data suggest that 20%-30%
HBeAg-negative patients who relapsed or had no response
during previous IFN- treatment had a sustained
response after a second course of IFN- .142
4. Decompensated cirrhosis
Approximately 20% to 40% of patients with HBeAgpositive
chronic hepatitis B develop a flare in their ALT
Table 8. Responses to Approved Antiviral Therapies Among Treatment-naive Patients
with HBeAg Positive Chronic Hepatitis B
Standard IFN- 
5 MU qd or
10 MU tiw
12-24 wk
Control Lamivudine
100 mg qd
48-52 wk
Placebo Adefovir
10 mg qd
48 wk
Placebo Entecavir
0.5 mg qd
48 wk
Telbivudine
600 mg qd
52 wk
PegIFN 
180 mcg qw
48 wk
PegIFN  
Lamivudine
180 mcg qw 
100 mg 48 wk
Loss of serum
HBV DNA* 37% 17% 40-44% 16% 21% 0 67% 60% 25% 69%
Loss of HBeAg 33% 12% 17-32% 6-11% 24% 11% 22% 26% 30%/34%@ 27%/28%@
HBeAg
seroconversion Difference of 18% 16-21% 4-6% 12% 6% 21% 22% 27%/32%@ 24%/27%@
Loss of HBsAg 7.8% 1.8%  1% 0 0 0 2% 0% 3% 3%
Normalization
of ALT Difference of 23% 41-75% 7-24% 48% 16% 68% 77% 39% 46%
Histologic
improvement na na 49-56% 23-25% 53% 25% 72% 65% 38%^ 41%^
Durability of
response 80-90% 50-80%# 90%# 69%# 80% na
*Hybridization or branched chain DNA assays (lower limit of detection 20,000-200,000 IU/ml or 5-6 log copies/ml) in standard IFN- studies and some lamivudine
studies, and PCR assays (lower limit of detection approximately 50 IU/ml or 250 copies/ml) in other studies na   not available
@Responses at week 48 / week 72 (24 weeks after stopping treatment)
#Lamivudine and entecavir – no or short duration of consolidation treatment, Adefovir and telbivudine – most patients had consolidation treatment
^Post-treatment biopsies obtained at week 72
516 LOK AND MCMAHON HEPATOLOGY, February 2007

values during IFN- treatment. In patients with cirrhosis,
the flare may precipitate hepatic decompensation. Two
studies on IFN-  in patients with Child’s class B or C
cirrhosis reported minimal benefit. In addition, signifi-
cant side effects due to bacterial infection and exacerbation
of liver disease occurred even with low doses of
IFN-  (3 MU every other day).143,144 However, clinical
trials of HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis that included
patients with clinically and biochemically compensated
cirrhosis found that the response was comparable to that
in pre-cirrhotic patients and that less than 1% developed
hepatic decompensation.127,128
Durability of Response and Long-term Outcome of
IFN- –treated Patients. IFN- –induced HBeAg clearance
has been reported to be durable in 80% to 90% of
patients after a follow-up period of 4 to 8 years.70,74-76,145-148
However, HBV DNA remained detectable in the serum
from most of these patients when tested by PCR assays.
Studies in Europe and the United States reported that delayed
clearance of HBsAg occurred in 12% to 65% of patients
within 5 years of HBeAg loss, but delayed HBsAg
clearance was not observed in studies on Chinese patients.
70,74-76,145-148 There has been only one report comparing
the outcome of treated patients and controls. An 8-year
follow-up of 101 male patients who participated in a controlled
trial of IFN- therapy in Taiwan found that treated
patients had a lower incidence ofHCC(1.5% vs. 12%, P 
0.04) and a higher survival rate (98% vs. 57%, P 0.02).75
However, long-term clinical benefits of IFN- were not observed
in another Asian study149 and the incidence of HCC
in European or North American patients was not decreased.
74,76 Studies comparing the outcome of responders
versus nonresponders found that patients who cleared
HBeAg had better overall survival and survival free of hepatic
decompensation; the benefit was most apparent in patients
with cirrhosis.70,74,76,150
Contrary to HBeAg-positive patients, relapse after cessation
of IFN- treatment is frequent in HBeAg-negative
patients, with sustained response rates of only 15%-30%.
Among the long-term responders, approximately 20%
cleared HBsAg after 5 years of follow-up, and the risks of
progression to cirrhosis, HCC, and liver-related deaths
were reduced.86,140-142
Dose Regimen. IFN- is administered as subcutaneous
injections. The recommended dose for adults is 5MU
daily or 10 MU thrice weekly and for children 6 MU/m2
thrice weekly with a maximum of 10 MU. The recommended
duration of treatment for patients with HBeAgpositive
chronic hepatitis B is 16 to 24 weeks. Current
data suggest that patients with HBeAg-negative chronic
hepatitis B should be treated for at least 12 months, and
one study suggested that 24 months treatment may increase
the rate of sustained response.141
Pegylated Interferon alfa (pegIFN- )
PegIFN- has the advantages of more convenient administration
and more sustained viral suppression. Clinical
trials suggest that the efficacy of pegIFN- is similar
to or slightly better than standard IFN- .
Efficacy in Various Categories of Patients
1. HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis (Table 8) — In
one phase II trial,151 a higher percent of patients who
received pegIFN- had HBeAg seroconversion compared
to those who received standard IFN- . In a subsequent
phase III trial, 814 patients were randomized to receive
pegIFN- 2a 180 mcg weekly, pegIFN- 2a 180 mcg
weekly   lamivudine 100 mg daily, or lamivudine 100
mg daily for 48 weeks.52 At the end of treatment, viral
Table 9. Responses to Approved Antiviral Therapies Among Treatment-naive Patients
with HBeAg-Negative Chronic Hepatitis B
Standard
IFN- 
5 Mu qd or
10 MU tiw
6-12 mo
Control Lamivudine
100 mg qd
48-52 wk
Placebo Adefovir
10 mg qd
48 wk
Placebo Entecavir
0.5 mg qd
48 wk
Telbivudine
600 mg qd
52 wk
Peg IFN 
180 mcg qw
48 wk
PegIFN- 
180 mcg qw 
Lamivudine
100 mg qd
48 wk
Loss of serum
HBV DNA* 60-70% 10-20% 60-73% na 51% 0 90% 88% 63% 87%
Normalization
of ALT 60-70% 10-20% 60-79% na 72% 29% 78% 74% 38% 49%
Histologic
improvement na na 60-66% na 64% 33% 70% 67% 48%^ 38%^
Durability of
response 10-20%  10% 5% na na 20% 20%
*Hybridization or branched chain DNA assays (lower limit of detection 20,000-200,000 IU/ml or 5-6 log copies/ml) in standard IFN- studies and some lamivudine
studies, and PCR assays (lower limit of detection approximately 50 IU/ml or 250 copies/ml) in other studies
na   not available
^Post-treatment biopsies obtained at week 72
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007 LOK AND MCMAHON 517

suppression was most marked in the group that received
combination therapy. Despite differences in the degree of
viral suppression, HBeAg seroconversion was similar in
the three groups at the end of treatment: 27%, 24%, and
20%, respectively, but significantly higher in the two
groups that received pegIFN-  when response was assessed
24 weeks after treatment was stopped: 32%, 27%,
and 19%, respectively. These data indicate that pegIFN-
 2a monotherapy was superior to lamivudine monotherapy
in inducing sustained HBeAg seroconversion,
and comparable to combination therapy of pegIFN- 2a
and lamivudine.
Similar results were reported in two trials in which
pegIFN- 2b was administered. Twenty-four weeks after
treatment was stopped, one study reported identical rates
(29%) ofHBeAg seroconversion in patients who received
pegIFN- 2b with and without lamivudine,51 while the
other study reported a significantly higher rate of HBeAg
seroconversion in those who received the combination of
pegIFN- 2b and lamivudine vs. those who received lamivudine
only, 36% vs. 14%.152
2. HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis (Table 9) — In
the only published report of peg IFN- in HBeAg-negative
patients, 552 patients were randomized to receive 48
weeks of pegIFN- 2a 180 mcg weekly, the combination
of pegIFN- 2a 180 mcg weekly   lamivudine 100 mg
daily, or lamivudine 100 mg daily.153 Viral suppression
was most marked in the group that received combination
therapy. However, sustained response (HBV DNA undetectable
by PCR and normalization of ALT at week 72)
was comparable in the groups that received pegIFN- 2a
alone or in combination with lamivudine, and superior to
the group that received lamivudine monotherapy: 15%,
16%, and 6%, respectively.
Dose Regimen. PegIFN- 2a is the only pegylated
interferon approved for the treatment of chronic hepatitis
B in the United States. The recommended dose is 180
mcg weekly for 48 weeks. However, given the similarity in
response rates between 90 and 180 mcg doses in the phase
II trial, and the comparable response rates between 24 and
48 week treatment in the phase II and phase III trials,52,151
it is possible that lower doses and/or shorter duration of
treatment may suffice for HBeAg-positive patients.
Whether longer duration of treatment ( 48 week) will
result in higher rates of sustained response in HBeAgnegative
patients remains to be determined.
Predictors of Response to Standard and PegIFN- .
In HBeAg-positive patients, the strongest predictor of
HBeAg seroconversion to standard and pegIFN-  is the
pretreatment ALT level. Other factors include high histologic
activity index, low HBV DNA level, and more
recently some studies have suggested that persons infected
with HBV genotypes A and B respond better than those
with genotypes C and D.51,127,128 There is no consistent
predictor of sustained response among HBeAg-negative
patients.
Adverse Events. Standard IFN-  and pegIFN- 
have similar side effect profiles. The most common side
effect is an initial influenza-like illness: fever, chills, headache,
malaise and myalgia. Other common side effects
include fatigue, anorexia, weight loss and mild increase in
hair loss. IFN- has myelosuppressive effects but signifi-
cant neutropenia ( 1000/mm3) or thrombocytopenia
( 50,000/mm3) are uncommon except in patients who
have decreased cell counts prior to treatment. IFN- 
treatment is accompanied by a flare in ALT in 30%-40%
of patients. Hepatitis flares are considered to be an indicator
of a favorable response but they can lead to hepatic
decompensation, especially in patients with underlying
cirrhosis. The most troublesome side effect of IFN-  is
emotional lability: anxiety, irritability, depression and
even suicidal tendency. IFN-  has been reported to induce
the development of a variety of autoantibodies. In
most instances, this is not accompanied by clinical illness.
However, both hyper- and hypo-thyroidism that require
treatment have been reported. Rarely, retinal changes and
even impaired vision have been reported.
Lamivudine (Epivir-HBV, 3TC)
Lamivudine is the ( ) enantiomer of 2 -3  dideoxy-
3 -thiacytidine. Incorporation of the active triphosphate
(3TC-TP) into growingDNAchains results in premature
chain termination thereby inhibiting HBV DNA synthesis.
Efficacy in Various Categories of Patients. Lamivudine
monotherapy is effective in suppressing HBV replication
and in ameliorating liver disease. HBeAg
seroconversion after a 1-year course of lamivudine treatment
is similar to that of a 16-week course of standard
IFN-  but lower than that of a 1-year course of pegIFN-
 .
1. HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B with the following
(Table 8):
a. Persistent or intermittent elevation in ALT. Three
clinical trials involving a total of 731 treatment nai¨ve patients
who received lamivudine for 1 year reported that
HBeAg seroconversion occurred in 16% to 18% of
patients compared with 4% to 6% of untreated controls.
154-156 Histologic improvement defined as a reduction
in necroinflammatory score by  2 points was
observed in 49% to 56% treated patients and in 23% to
25% of controls. HBeAg seroconversion rates increased
with the duration of treatment to 50% after 5 years of
continued treatment.157-160
518 LOK AND MCMAHON HEPATOLOGY, February 2007

b. Normal ALT levels. In patients with pretreatment
ALT levels less than 2 times normal, the HBeAg seroconversion
rate is less than 10% after 1 year and 19% after 3
years of treatment.161,162
c. Asian patients. Asians respond similarly to lamivudine
as Caucasian patients.162
d. Children. In a 52 week randomized-control trial in
children HBeAg seroconversion was observed in 22% of
the lamivudine-treated children versus 13% placebo controls
(P   0.06).163 HBeAg seroconversion increased to
34% after 2 years of continuous treatment. Lamivudineresistant
HBV mutation was detected in 19%, 49% and
64% of patients after 1, 2 and 3 years of treatment, respectively.
164 These data indicate that lamivudine is safe
and effective in children but the benefit must be carefully
balanced against the risk of selecting drug resistant mutants.
2. HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B (Table 9)
Lamivudine has been shown to benefit patients with
HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B.165-169 Several studies
have reported that serum HBV DNA is suppressed to
undetectable levels by PCR assays in 60% to 70% patients
after 1 year of treatment.167,168,170,171 However, the vast
majority (
90%) of patients relapsed when treatment
was stopped.166 Extending the duration of treatment resulted
in a progressively lower rate of response due to the
selection of lamivudine-resistant mutants. In one study of
201 patients, virologic remission (undetectable HBV
DNAby PCR assay) decreased from 73% at 12 months to
34% at 48 months while biochemical remission decreased
from 84% to 36%.172
3. Nonresponders to IFN- treatment
Amulticenter trial in IFN- nonresponders found that
patients had a similar HBeAg seroconversion rate to lamivudine
alone (18%), a combination of lamivudine and
IFN- (12%) or placebo (13%) indicating that response
of IFN- nonresponders to lamivudine is similar to treatment-
naive patients, and that retreatment with combination
of IFN- and lamivudine did not confer any added
benefit compared with retreatment with lamivudine
monotherapy.173

medline

谢谢
我这里章节已经分割了。就等着有人翻译再贴上去分配

IC

4. Bridging Fibrosis and Compensated Cirrhosis
In a double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled
trial of 651 Asian patients who were HBeAg positive or
had HBV DNA  105 IU/ml ( 700,000 genome equivalents/
ml), and bridging fibrosis or cirrhosis on liver biopsy
a statistically significant difference was observed
between those who received lamivudine vs. placebo for
overall disease progression (increase in Child-Turcotte-
Pugh score, hepatic decompensation or HCC) (7.8% vs.
17.7% P 0.001), and for HCC development (3.9% vs.
7.4% P   0.047). (77) Clinical benefit was observed
mainly among the 51% patients who did not have breakthrough
infection. These data indicate that antiviral therapy
can improve clinical outcomes in patients with
advanced fibrosis who have maintained viral suppression.
5. Decompensated cirrhosis
Studies of lamivudine in patients with decompensated
cirrhosis showed that lamivudine treatment is well tolerated
and can stabilize or improve liver function in patients
with decompensated cirrhosis thereby obviating or delaying
the need for liver transplant.174-177 However, these
studies showed that clinical benefit takes 3-6 months, and
that HCC can occur even among patients with clinical
improvement. Thus, prompt initiation of treatment and
continued HCC surveillance are warranted.
Durability of Response. A follow-up study in non-
Asian countries found that 30 of 39 (77%) patients with
HBeAg seroconversion had durable response after a median
follow-up of 37 months (range, 5-46 months) and 8
(20%) patients had HBsAg seroconversion.178 Studies
from Asia reported lower rates of durability (50%-60%),
which may in part be related to a shorter duration of
treatment (mean 8-9 months).179,180 Several factors have
been found to be associated with increased durability of
lamivudine-induced HBeAg seroconversion including
longer duration of consolidation treatment—defined as
duration of treatment beyond the time after HBeAg seroconversion,
younger age, lower HBV DNA level at the
time treatment was stopped, and genotype B vs. C.179-183
Although there are no good direct comparison data, it
appears that the durability of lamivudine-induced HBeAg
seroconversion is less than that for IFN- .184
Among HBeAg-negative patients, the durability of viral
suppression after 1-year of lamivudine treatment is less
than 10%.One small study reported that the durability of
virologic response was improved to 50% in patients who
had completed 2 years of treatment and had persistently
undetectable HBV DNA by PCR assay during year 2.185
Lamivudine Resistance. Selection of lamivudine-resistant
mutations is the main concern with lamivudine
treatment. The most common mutation involves substitution
of methionine in the tyrosine-methionine-aspartate-
aspartate (YMDD) motif of the HBV DNA
polymerase for valine or isoleucine rtM204V/I.186,187
This mutation is frequently accompanied by a leucine to
methionine substitution in an upstream region
(rtL180M). Genotypic resistance can be detected in 14%
to 32% after 1 year of lamivudine treatment 154-156 and
increases with the duration of treatment to 60% to 70%
after 5 years of treatment.159,160 Factors associated with an
increase rate of lamivudine resistance include long duration
of treatment, high pretreatment serum HBV DNA
level, and a high level of residual virus after initiation of
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007 LOK AND MCMAHON 519

treatment.160,188 One study reported that the rate of lamivudine
resistance was significantly higher in patients
whose serum HBV DNA level exceeded
200 IU/ml
(1,000 copies/ml) after 6 months of treatment compared
to those with lower HBV DNA levels (63% vs. 13%).188
The clinical course of patients with lamivudine-resistant
mutants is variable. In vitro studies showed that
rtM204V/I mutation decreases replication fitness ofHBV
but compensatory mutations selected during continued
treatment can restore replication fitness.122,189 Virologic
breakthrough is usually followed by biochemical breakthrough
(increase in ALT after initial normalization), and
in some patients may be associated with acute exacerbations
of liver disease and rarely hepatic decompensation
and death.190-192 Exacerbations of hepatitis associated
with the emergence of lamivudine resistance had also been
reported to be associated with HBeAg seroconversion,
possibly via immune mediated mechanisms.190 Hepatitis
flares may also occur after withdrawal of treatment due to
rapid outgrowth of wild type virus, but two studies in Asia
found that the occurrence of hepatitis flares and hepatic
decompensation were similar among patients with lamivudine
breakthrough who stopped or continued lamivudine
treatment.193,194
Long-term Outcome of Lamivudine-treated Patients.
Follow-up of patients receiving continued lamivudine
treatment showed that the rates of maintained
virologic and biochemical response decreased with time
due to selection of drug-resistant mutants.160,171,172 In
patients with maintained viral suppression, necroinflammation
is reduced and decrease in fibrosis score as well as
regression of cirrhosis was observed.195 However, histologic
benefit was negated among patients with breakthrough
infection. Several studies reported that patients
with maintained viral suppression had lower rates of
hepatic decompensation as well as liver-related mortality.
172,196
Dose Regimen. The recommended dose of lamivudine
for adults with normal renal function (creatinine
clearance  50 ml/min) and no HIV coinfection is 100
mg orally daily. The recommended dose for children is 3
mg/kg/d with amaximum dose of 100 mg/d. Dose reduction
is necessary for patients with renal insufficiency (Table
10a).
The end point of treatment for HBeAg-positive patients
is HBeAg seroconversion.154-156 Liver chemistries
should be monitored every 3 months and HBV DNA
levels every 3-6 months while on therapy, and HBeAg and
anti-HBe tested at the end of 1 year of treatment and
every 3-6 months thereafter. Treatment may be discontinued
in patients who have confirmed HBeAg seroconversion
(HBeAg loss and anti-HBe detection on 2
occasions 1-3 months apart) and have completed at least 6
months of consolidation therapy after the appearance of
anti-HBe. The durability of response after cessation of
treatment is expected to be 70% to 90%. Viral relapse and
exacerbations of hepatitis may occur after discontinuation
of lamivudine therapy,197 including patients who have
developed HBeAg seroconversion, and may be delayed up
to 1 year after cessation of treatment. Thus, all patients
should be closely monitored after treatment is discontinued
(every 1-3 months for the first 6 months, and every
3-6 months thereafter). Reinstitution of lamivudine treatment
is usually effective in patients who have not developed
resistance. Alternatively, treatment with newer
therapies with lower risk of drug resistance may be considered.
Treatment may be continued in patients who have not
achieved HBeAg seroconversion and have no evidence of
breakthrough infection as HBeAg seroconversion may occur
with continued treatment.157-159 However, the bene-
fits of continued treatment must be balanced against the
risks of resistant mutants. With the availability of newer
therapies with lower risk of drug resistance, a switch to an
alternative treatment may be considered particularly in
patients who have received lamivudine for more than 2
years.
In patients who have breakthrough infection, testing
for lamivudine-resistant mutants should be performed
Table 10. Adjustment of Adult Dosage of Nucleosid(t)e
Analogue in Accordance with Creatinine Clearance
Creatinine clearance
(ml/min) Recommended dose
a. Lamivudine
 50 100 mg qd
30-49 100 mg first dose, then 50 mg qd
15-29 35 mg first dose, then 25 mg qd
5-14 35 mg first dose, then 15 mg qd
 5 35 mg first dose, then 10 mg qd
b. Adefovir
 50 10 mg daily
20-49 10 mg every other day
10-19 10 mg every third day
Hemodialysis patients 10 mg every week following dialysis
c. Entecavir NA nai ¨ve Lamivudine refractory/resistant
 50 0.5 mg qd 1 mg qd
30-39 0.25 mg qd 0.5 mg qd
10-29 0.15 mg qd 0.3 mg qd
 10 or hemodialysis* or
continuous ambulatory
peritoneal dialysis
0.05 mg qd 0.1 mg qd
d. Telbivudine
 50 600 mg daily
30-49 400 mg daily
 30 200 mg daily
Hemodialysis patients 200 mg daily following dialysis
*administer after hemodialysis
520 LOK AND MCMAHON HEPATOLOGY, February 2007

when possible. The vast majority of patients with con-
firmed lamivudine-resistance should receive rescue therapy
with antiviral agents that are effective against
lamivudine-resistant HBV mutants. A minority of patients
may consider stopping treatment, particularly if
they had normal ALT, or if the biopsy showed mild in-
flammation and no or minimal fibrosis prior to initiation
of treatment.193,194 Patients whose ALT and HBV DNA
levels remain significantly lower than pretreatment values
may be maintained on lamivudine temporarily without
resorting to rescue therapy but it must be recognized that
compensatory mutations will be selected during continued
treatment leading to subsequent viral rebound and
possibly hepatitis flares.
The end point of treatment for HBeAg-negative chronic
hepatitis B is unknown. Post-treatment relapse can occur
even in patients with persistently undetectable serum HBV
DNA by PCR assay. Because of the need for long durations
of treatment, lamivudine is not an optimal first-line treatment
for HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B.
Predictors of Response. Pretreatment serum ALT is
the strongest predictor of response among HBeAg-positive
patients. Pooled data from 4 studies with a total of
406 patients who received lamivudine for one year found
that HBeAg seroconversion occurred in 2%, 9%, 21%,
and 47% of patients with ALT levels within normal, 1-2
times normal, 2-5 times normal, and  5 times normal,
respectively; the corresponding seroconversion rates for
196 patients in the placebo group were 0%, 5%, 11%,
and 14%, respectively.162
Adverse Events. In general, lamivudine is very well
tolerated. Various adverse events including a mild (2- to
3-fold) increase in ALT level have been reported in patients
receiving lamivudine, but these events occurred in
the same frequency among the controls.154-156
Adefovir Dipivoxil (bis-POM PMEA, Hepsera)
Adefovir dipivoxil is an orally bioavailable pro-drug of
adefovir, a nucleotide analog of adenosine monophosphate.
It can inhibit both the reverse transcriptase and
DNA polymerase activity and is incorporated into HBV
DNA causing chain termination. In vitro and clinical
studies showed that adefovir is effective in suppressing
wild type as well as lamivudine-resistant HBV.
Efficacy in Various Categories of Patients.
1. HBeAg positive chronic hepatitis B (Table 8)—In
a Phase III trial, 515 patients were randomized to receive
10 or 30 mg of adefovir or placebo for 48 weeks. Histologic
response was observed in 25% of those on placebo
vs. 53% and 59% of patients who received adefovir 10 mg
and 30 mg, respectively (P   0.001, adefovir 10mg or
30mg vs. placebo).198 The corresponding figures for
HBeAg seroconversion were 12% and 14% for adefovir
10 mg and 30 mg groups compared to 6% for the placebo
group (P   0.049 and P   0.011, respectively). Serum
HBVDNAlevels decreased by amean of 0.6, 3.5, and 4.8
log10 copies/ml, and normalization of ALT levels was observed
in 16%, 48%, and 55% of patients who received
placebo, adefovir 10 mg and 30 mg, respectively (P  
0.001 placebo vs. either dose of adefovir). The side effect
profiles in the three groups were similar but 8% of patients
in the adefovir 30 mg dose group had nephrotoxicity
(defined as an increase in serum creatinine by  0.5
mg/dl above the baseline value on two consecutive occasions).
These data demonstrated that adefovir for 1-year is
beneficial in patients with HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis
and that the 10-mg dose has a more favorable riskbenefit
profile. Cumulative HBeAg seroconversion rates
appeared to increase during the second and third years but
the exact number of patients who achieved HBeAg seroconversion
was unclear.
Some studies have reported that 20%-50% of patients
receiving the 10 mg dose of adefovir have primary nonresponse
indicating that the approved dose of adefovir
may be suboptimal.123
2. HBeAg negative chronic hepatitis (Table 9)—In a
Phase III trial, 184 patients were randomized in a 2:1 ratio
to receive adefovir 10 mg or placebo. At week 48, the
treated group had significantly higher rates of response
than the placebo group as follows: histologic response,
64% versus 33% (P   0.001); normalization of ALT,
72% versus 29% (P   0.001); and undetectable serum
HBV DNA by PCR assay, 51% versus 0% (P  
0.001).199 During year 2, patients who received adefovir
in year 1 were randomized to continue adefovir 10 mg or
to receive placebo.200 At week 96, the proportion of patients
with undetectable serum HBV DNA increased to
71% in the group that continued to receive adefovir, and
decreased to 8% in the group that stopped therapy. Preliminary
data from 55 patients who completed 4 years and
70 patients who completed 5 years of continued adefovir
treatment, showed that serum HBV DNA was undetectable
in 65% and 67% and ALT normalized in 70% and
69% respectively of the 4- and 5- year cohorts.201
3. Children — Clinical trials of adefovir in children
are ongoing.
4. Decompensated cirrhosis—Adefovir has not been
evaluated as a primary treatment for patients with decompensated
cirrhosis.
5. Lamivudine-resistant hepatitis B —
a. Decompensated cirrhosis and liver transplant recipients—
In a compassionate use study involving 128 patients
with decompensated cirrhosis and 196 patients
with recurrent hepatitis B after liver transplant, addi-
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007 LOK AND MCMAHON 521

tion of adefovir was associated with a 3-4 log10 reduction
in serum HBV DNA levels, which was sustained
throughout the course of treatment.202 Among the patients
who completed 48 weeks of treatment, 81% of
the pre- and 34% of the post-transplant patients had
undetectable HBV DNA by PCR assay, and 76% and
49%, respectively had normalization of ALT. Child-
Turcotte-Pugh score improved in more than 90% of
the pre-transplant patients, and 1-year survival was
84% for the pre- and 93% for the post-transplant patients.
Follow-up data on 226 pre-transplant patients
showed that viral suppression was maintained in 65%
of patients after 96 weeks of treatment with accompanying
improvement in Child-Turcotte-Pugh scores as
well as Model for End-stage Liver Disease (MELD)
scores.203
b. Compensated liver disease — While a pilot study in
patients with compensated chronic hepatitis B and lamivudine
resistance found no differences inHBVDNAsuppression
and ALT normalization in persons treated with
the combination of lamivudine and adefovir compared to
those receiving adefovir alone,204 patients who discontinued
lamivudine were more likely to develop ALT flares
during the first 12 weeks of adefovir monotherapy. In
addition, recent data showed that switching to adefovir in
patients with lamivudine-resistant HBV was associated
with a higher risk of adefovir-resistance compared to adding
adefovir.123,204
c. HIV and HBV coinfection—Adefovir when added to
existing HIV treatment regimens which included lamivudine
150 mg bid has also been shown to be effective in
decreasing serum HBV DNA levels in patients with HIV
and HBV coinfection and lamivudine-resistant HBV.205
Durability of Response and Long-term Outcome of
Adefovir-treated Patients. The durability of HBeAg
seroconversion was examined in 76 patients who had received
a median of 80 (range 30-193) weeks of adefovir
treatment, and had been followed for a median of 52
(range 5-125) weeks off treatment. HBeAg seroconversion
wasmaintained in 69 (92%) patients. The seemingly
high rate of durability of adefovir-related HBeAg seroconversion
may be related to a long duration of treatment
(median 80 weeks) and more importantly, a long duration
of treatment after HBeAg seroconversion (median 41
weeks).206
Among HBeAg-negative patients, viral suppression
was sustained in only 8% of patients who stopped adefovir
after 1-year of treatment.200 The vast majority of patients
who continued treatment up to 5 years maintained
their response but there was minimal incremental response
after the first year. HBsAg loss was observed in 5%
of patients after 4-5 years of continued treatment.201 In
addition, long-term treatment was associated with a decrease
in fibrosis score. Nonetheless, 2% of patients developed
HCC indicating that long-term antiviral
treatment does not completely prevent HCC.
Adefovir Resistance. Resistance occurs at a slower
rate during adefovir treatment compared to lamivudine
and no adefovir-resistant mutations were found after 1
year of treatment in the patients who participated in the
Phase III trials.207 However, novel mutations conferring
resistance to adefovir (asparagine to threonine substitution
N236T and alanine to valine or threonine substitution
A181V/T) have been described.208,209 Aggregate data
from 5 studies including 3 studies using the combination
of lamivudine and adefovir in patients with lamivudineresistant
HBV estimated the cumulative rate of adefovirresistance
to be 15% by 192 weeks.210 The phase III trial
in HBeAg-negative patients found that the cumulative
probabilities of genotypic resistance to adefovir at 1, 2, 3,
4, and 5 years were 0, 3%, 11%, 18%, and 29%, respectively.
201 Recent studies using more sensitive methods
have reported detection of adefovir-resistant mutations
after 1 year of treatment and rates of genotypic resistance
exceeding 20% after 2 years of treatment.123,211 In these
studies, adefovir resistance was predominantly found in
patients with prior lamivudine resistance switched to adefovir
monotherapy.

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In vitro studies showed that adefovir-resistant mutations
decrease susceptibility by 3-15 -fold only.208,209
Nevertheless, clinical studies found that viral rebound,
hepatitis flares and even hepatic decompensation can occur.
212 Risk factors for adefovir resistance that have been
identified include suboptimal viral suppression and sequential
monotherapy.123,211 Sequential treatment with
lamivudine followed by adefovir had also been reported to
select for dual-resistant HBV mutants.212
In vitro and clinical studies showed that adefovir-resistant
HBV mutants are susceptible to lamivudine and entecavir.
209 However, in patients with prior lamivudine
resistance, who developed adefovir resistance after being
switched to adefovir monotherapy, re-emergence of lamivudine-
resistant mutations has been reported soon after
reintroduction of lamivudine.212 There are anecdotal
cases where switching from adefovir to tenofovir resulted
in a decrease in serum HBV DNA levels. This may be
related to a higher dose of tenofovir being used 300 mg vs.
adefovir 10mg. One case series reported that two patients
with adefovir-resistant HBV responded to entecavir with
a decrease in serum HBV DNA to undetectable levels.123
Dose Regimen. The recommended dose of adefovir
for adults with normal renal function (creatinine clear-
522 LOK AND MCMAHON HEPATOLOGY, February 2007

ance  50 ml/min) is 10 mg orally daily. The dosing interval
should be increased in patients with renal insuffi-
ciency (Table 10b). Adefovir has not been approved for
use in children. Adefovir at the 10 mg dose is ineffective in
suppressing HIV replication.
For patients with HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B,
treatment may be discontinued for those who have con-
firmed HBeAg seroconversion and have completed an additional
6 months of consolidation treatment. Treatment
may be continued in patients who have not achieved
HBeAg seroconversion but in whom HBV DNA levels
remain suppressed.
For patients with HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B,
continued treatment (beyond 1 year) is needed to maintain
the response.200
For most patients with lamivudine-resistant mutants,
particularly those with decompensated cirrhosis
or recurrent hepatitis B post-transplant, long-term
treatment will be required. Increasing data indicate
that lamivudine should be continued indefinitely after
the addition of adefovir to reduce the risk of adefovir
resistance.
Approximately 30% of patients who have no prior
treatment with NAs have primary nonresponse to adefovir,
defined as a 2 log drop inHBVDNAafter 6months
of treatment.213 Alternative treatments should be considered
for these patients.
Predictors of Response. Retrospective analyses of
data from two phase III clinical trials showed that reduction
in serum HBV DNA was comparable across the 4
major HBV genotypes A-D in the groups receiving adefovir.
214 Limited data suggest that HBeAg-positive patients
with high pretreatment ALT were more likely to undergo
HBeAg seroconversion.
Adverse Events. Adefovir in 10 mg doses is well tolerated
and has a similar side effect profile as placebo in
Phase III clinical trials. Nephrotoxicity has been reported
in 3% of patients with compensated liver disease after 4-5
years of continued adefovir therapy, and in 12% of transplant
recipients and 28% of patients with decompensated
cirrhosis during the first year of therapy.201,202 Whether
the higher rate of nephrotoxicity in the latter two groups
of patients is related to concomitant use of nephrotoxic
medications, progression of decompensated cirrhosis (hepatorenal
syndrome) or a direct effect of adefovir is unclear.
Regardless, monitoring of serum creatinine every 3
months is necessary for patients with medical conditions
that predispose to renal insufficiency and in all patients on
adefovir for more than 1 year. More frequent monitoring
should be performed in patients with pre-existing renal
insufficiency.
Entecavir (Baraclude)
Entecavir, a carbocyclic analogue of 2 -deoxyguanosine,
inhibits HBV replication at three different
steps: the priming of HBV DNA polymerase, the reverse
transcription of the negative strand HBV DNA from the
pregenomic RNA, and the synthesis of the positive strand
HBV DNA. In vitro studies showed that entecavir is more
potent than lamivudine and adefovir and is effective
against lamivudine-resistant HBV mutants although the
activity is lower compared to wild-type HBV.215
Efficacy in Various Categories of Patients.
1. HBeAg-positive patients (Table 8)—In a phase III
clinical trial, 715 patients with compensated liver disease
were randomized to receive entecavir 0.5 mg or lamivudine
100 mg daily. At week 48, entecavir resulted in significantly
higher rates of histologic (72% vs. 62%),
virologic [HBV DNA undetectable by PCR] (67% vs.
36%) and biochemical (68% vs. 60%) responses compared
to lamivudine. However, HBeAg seroconversion
rates were similar in the two groups: 21% vs. 18%.216
Among the patients who had suppressed HBV DNA but
remained HBeAg positive, continuation of treatment in
the second year resulted in HBeAg seroconversion in 11%
of patients in the entecavir group and in 13% of the
lamivudine group. Serum HBV DNA was undetectable
by PCR in 81% vs. 39%, and normalization of ALT occurred
in 79% vs. 68% of patients who continued entecavir
and lamivudine treatment, respectively.217
2. HBeAg-negative patients (Table 9)—In a phase III
clinical trial 648 patients with compensated liver disease
were randomized to receive entecavir 0.5 mg or lamivudine
100 mg daily. At week 48, entecavir resulted in significantly
higher rates of histologic (70% vs. 61%),
virologic (90% vs. 72%) and biochemical (78% vs. 71%)
responses compared to lamivudine.218
3. Decompensated cirrhosis / recurrent hepatitis B after
liver transplantation—Studies on the safety and effi-
cacy of entecavir in patients with decompensated cirrhosis
are ongoing.
4. Lamivudine-refractory HBV — In a dose-finding
phase II trial, entecavir was shown to be effective in suppressing
lamivudine-resistant HBV but a higher dose 1.0
mg was required.219 In a subsequent study, 286 HBeAgpositive
patients with persistent viremia while on lamivudine
were randomized to receive entecavir 1.0 mg or
lamivudine 100 mg daily. At week 48, entecavir resulted
in significantly higher rates of histologic (55% vs. 28%),
virologic (21% vs. 1%) and biochemical (75% vs. 23%)
responses compared to lamivudine.220
5. Adefovir-resistant HBV — In vitro studies showed
that entecavir is effective in suppressing adefovir-resistant
HBV mutants.209 There is one case report on the efficacy
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007 LOK AND MCMAHON 523

of entecavir in patients with adefovir-resistant HBV.123
Durability of Response. Among HBeAg-positive patients
who underwent HBeAg seroconversion during the
first year and who stopped treatment at week 48, approximately
70% of patients remained HBeAg negative.216,217
Consolidation therapy was not included in the phase III
trial. Data on the durability of response among HBeAgnegative
patients are lacking but it is likely that the vast
majority of patients will relapse if treatment is stopped
after 1 year.
Entecavir Resistance. Virologic breakthrough was
rare in nucleoside-nai¨ve patients, and was observed in
only 3% of patients by Week 96 of entecavir treatment in
the two phase III clinical trials. Resistant mutations to
lamivudine and entecavir were detected in only two
( 1%) patients while resistant mutations to lamivudine
only were found in three patients.221 However, virologic
breakthrough was detected in 7% of patients after 48
weeks and in 16% after 96 weeks of treatment in the phase
III trial of lamivudine refractory patients.220,221 Resistance
to entecavir appears to occur through a two-hit
mechanism with initial selection of M204V/I mutation
followed by amino acid substitutions at rtI169, rtT184,
rtS202, or rtM250.222 In vitro studies showed that the
mutations at positions 169, 184, 202 or 250 on their own
have minimal effect on susceptibility to entecavir, but
susceptibility to entecavir is decreased by 10-250-fold
when one of these mutations is present with lamivudineresistant
mutations, and by 500-fold when two or more
entecavir-resistant mutations are present with lamivudine-
resistant mutations. Lamivudine should be discontinued
when patients are switched to entecavir to decrease
the risk of entecavir resistance. In vitro studies showed
that entecavir-resistant mutations are susceptible to adefovir,
but there are very little clinical data on the efficacy
of adefovir in patients with entecavir-resistant HBV.
Dose Regimen. The approved dose of entecavir for
nucleoside-nai¨ve patients is 0.5 mg daily p.o. and for
lamivudine-refractory/resistant patients is 1.0 mg daily
p.o. Doses should be adjusted for patients with estimated
creatinine clearance  50 ml/min (Table 10c).
Predictors of Response. Entecavir appears to be
equally effective in decreasing serum HBV DNA levels
and in inducing histologic improvement in Asians and
Caucasians, and across HBV genotypes A-D and a wide
range of pretreatment HBV DNA and ALT levels. However,
HBeAg seroconversion rates were lower in patients
with normal ALT, being 12%, 23%, and 39% among
those with pretreatment ALT  2, 2-5, and  5 times
normal, respectively.223
Adverse Events. Entecavir had a similar safety profile
as lamivudine in clinical trials.216,218 Studies in rodents
exposed to doses 3-40 times that in humans found an
increased incidence of lung adenomas, brain gliomas and
HCCs.224 To date, no difference in the incidence ofHCC
or other neoplasm has been observed between patients
who received entecavir versus lamivudine.
L-deoxythymidine (Telbivudine/LdT, Tyzeka)
Telbivudine is an L-nucleoside analogue with potent
antiviral activity against HBV. Clinical trials showed that
telbivudine is more potent than lamivudine in suppressing
HBV replication.225-228 However, telbivudine is associated
with a high rate of resistance and telbivudineresistant
mutations are cross-resistant with lamivudine.
Therefore, telbivudine monotherapy has a limited role in
the treatment of hepatitis B.
Efficacy in Various Categories of Patients.
1. HBeAg-positive patients (Table 8) — A Phase III
clinical trial involving 921 patients showed that a signifi-
cantly higher percent of patients who received telbivudine
had undetectable HBV DNA by PCR assay compared
to those who received lamivudine: 60% vs. 40% and
54% vs. 38%, after 1 and 2 years of treatment, respectively.
227,228 Telbivudine also resulted in a higher percent
of patients with normalization of ALT than lamivudine:
77% vs. 75% (NS) and 67% vs. 61% (P   0.05) after 1
and 2 years of treatment, respectively. However, there was
no difference in the rate of HBeAg loss at the end of 1 and
2 years of treatment: 26% vs. 23%, and 34% vs. 29% of
patients who received telbivudine and lamivudine, respectively.
2. HBeAg-negative patients (Table 9) — The Phase
III clinical trial which included 446 HBeAg-negative patients
showed that a significantly higher percent of patients
who received telbivudine had undetectable HBV
DNA by PCR assay compared to those who received
lamivudine: 88% vs. 71% and 79% vs. 53%, after 1 and 2
years of treatment, respectively.227,228 Normalization of
ALT was observed in: 74% vs. 79% (NS) and 75% vs.
67% (P   0.05) after 1 and 2 years of telbivudine and
lamivudine treatment, respectively.
Telbivudine Resistance. Telbivudine selects for mutations
in the YMDD motif. To date, only M204I (but
not M204V) has been observed.225 Although telbivudine
is associated with a lower rate of drug resistance than
lamivudine, the resistance rate is substantial and increases
exponentially after the first year of treatment. In the phase
III clinical trial, genotypic resistance after 1 and 2 years of
treatment was observed in 4.4% and 21.6% of HBeAgpositive
and in 2.7% and 8.6% of HBeAg-negative patients
who received telbivudine compared to 9.1% and
35% of HBeAg-positive and 9.8% and 21.9% of HBeAgnegative
patients who received lamivudine. The lower re-
524 LOK AND MCMAHON HEPATOLOGY, February 2007

sistance rate in the lamivudine group compared to
previously reported clinical trials on lamivudine160 may
be related to the fact that only patients with virologic
breakthrough were tested and a less sensitive method (direct
sequencing) was used for detection of resistant mutations.
Dose Regimen. The approved dose of telbivudine is
600 mg daily. Doses should be adjusted for patients with
estimated creatinine clearance  50 ml/min (Table 10d).
Predictors of Response. Preliminary data suggest
that week 24 virologic response was the most important predictor
of virologic and biochemical responses as well as resistance
at week 96.229 However, even among patients with
undetectable HBV DNA by PCR at week 24, telbivudine
resistance was observed in 4% of patients by week 96.
Adverse Events. Telbivudine is well tolerated and has
a safety profile comparable to lamivudine.225
Other Therapies
Emtricitabine (Emtriva, FTC)
Emtricitabine is a potent inhibitor of HIV and HBV
replication. FTC has been approved for HIV treatment as
Emtriva (FTC only) and as Truvada (in combination
with tenofovir as a single pill). Because of its structural
similarity with lamivudine (3TC), treatment with FTC
selects for the same resistant mutants.
In one study of 248 patients (63% were HBeAg positive)
FTC 200 mg daily resulted in a significantly higher
rate of histologic (62% vs. 25%), virologic [undetectable
HBVDNAby PCR assay] (54% vs. 2%) and biochemical
(65% vs. 25%) responses at week 48 compared to placebo
but HBeAg seroconversion rates were identical—12% in
the two groups.230 FTC-resistant mutations in the
YMDD motif were detected in 13% of patients.
Tenofovir (Viread)
Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate is a nucleotide analogue
that has been approved for the treatment of HIV infection
as Viread (tenofovir only) or Truvada (tenofovir plus
emtricitabine as a single pill). Tenofovir is structurally
similar to adefovir. In vitro studies showed that tenofovir
and adefovir are equipotent. Because tenofovir appears to
be less nephrotoxic, the approved dose is much higher
than that of adefovir, 300 mg versus 10 mg daily. This
may explain why tenofovir has more potent antiviral activity
in clinical studies.
Retrospective analysis of trials in patients with HIV
infection that included subsets of patients coinfected with
HBV demonstrated that tenofovir was associated with a
significant reduction inHBVDNAlevels. Several studies,
including one prospective randomized study of 52 patients
with HIV and HBV coinfection, found that tenofovir
led to a greater reduction in serum HBV DNA levels
than adefovir.231-235 Similar results have been obtained
in HIV-negative patients with lamivudine-resistant
HBV.235,236 There have also been case reports of viral
rebound when patients with virologic response were
switched from tenofovir to adefovir and further viral reduction
when patients with inadequate viral suppression
were switched from adefovir to tenofovir.237 Tenofovir is
generally well tolerated but it has been rarely reported to
cause Fanconi syndrome and renal insufficiency.238
Clevudine (LFMAU, 2 -fluoro-5-methyl-beta-Larabinofuranosyl
uracil)
Clevudine is a pyrimidine nucleoside analogue that is
effective in inhibiting HBV replication in in vitro and in
animal models. Clinical trials showed that clevudine in
doses of 30 mg daily for up to 24 weeks was well tolerated.
Serum HBV DNA levels were undetectable by PCR assay
at the end of treatment in 59% of HBeAg-positive and in
92% of HBeAg-negative patients.239,240 A unique feature
of clevudine is the durability of viral suppression, persisting
for up to 24 weeks after withdrawal of treatment in
some patients.226 Nonetheless, clevudine has not been
shown to increase the rate of HBeAg seroconversion compared
to placebo controls and in vitro studies suggest that
it can select for mutations in the YMDD motif.
Thymosin
Thymic-derived peptides can stimulate T-cell function.
Clinical trials have shown that thymosin is well tolerated
but data on efficacy are conflicting.241-245
Combination Therapies
Combination therapies have been proven to be more
effective than monotherapy in the treatment of HIV and
HCV infections. The potential advantages of combination
therapies are additive or synergistic antiviral effects,
and diminished or delayed resistance. The potential disadvantages
of combination therapies are added costs, increased
toxicity, and drug interactions. Various
combination therapies have been evaluated; to date, none
of the combination therapies has been proven to be superior
to monotherapy in inducing a higher rate of sustained
response. Although several combination therapies have
been shown to reduce the rate of lamivudine resistance
compared to lamivudine monotherapy, there are as yet no
data to support that combination therapies will reduce the
rate of resistance to antiviral compounds that have a low
risk of drug resistance when used alone.
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007 LOK AND MCMAHON 525

Standard or PegIFN-  and Lamivudine
Treatment nai¨ve patients. Five large trials (1 using
standard IFN-  and 4 using pegIFN- , 4 in HBeAgpositive
patients and 1 in HBeAg-negative patients) have
been conducted comparing the combination of IFN- 
and lamivudine to lamivudine alone and/or IFN- 
alone.51,52,152,153,156 All studies found that combination
therapy had greater on-treatment viral suppression and
higher rates of sustained off-treatment response compared
to lamivudine alone, but no difference in sustained offtreatment
virologic response compared to IFN-  alone.
Although combination therapy was associated with lower
rates of lamivudine resistance compared to lamivudine
monotherapy, a low rate of lamivudine resistance was encountered
compared to none in patients who received
IFN- alone.
IFN-  Non-responders
Combination therapy of standard IFN- and lamivudine
is not more effective than lamivudine alone in the
retreatment of IFN- non-responders.173
Lamivudine and Adefovir
Nucleoside-Nai¨ve Patients. One trial included 115
patients randomized to receive the combination of lamivudine
and adefovir or lamivudine alone. At week 52,
there was no difference in HBV DNA suppression, ALT
normalization or HBeAg loss.246 Results at week 104 were
also comparable in the two groups. Serum HBV DNA
was undetectable in 14% versus 26%, ALT normalization
in 41% versus 47%, and HBeAg seroconversion in 20%
versus 13%, in the groups that received combination therapy
and lamivudine monotherapy, respectively.247 Although
genotypic resistance was less common in the
combination group, a substantial percent had mutation in
the YMDD motif (15% versus 43% in the lamivudine
monotherapy group). These data indicate that the combination
of lamivudine and adefovir as de novo therapy
does not have additive or synergistic antiviral effects and
resistance to lamivudine is not completely prevented
Patients with Lamivudine-resistant HBV. One
small trial in patients with compensated liver disease
showed that the combination of adefovir and lamivudine
was not superior to adefovir alone in decreasing serum
HBV DNA levels.248 However, hepatitis flares were less
frequent during the transition period in the combination
therapy group. Furthermore, recent data suggest that continuation
of lamivudine reduces the rate of resistance to
adefovir123,204. Thus, increasing evidence support that
adding adefovir is better than switching to adefovir
monotherapy for patients with lamivudine-resistant
HBV.
Lamivudine and Telbivudine
One trial conducted in nucleoside-nai¨ve HBeAg-positive
patients demonstrated that the combination of lamivudine
and telbivudine was inferior for all parameters of
response compared to telbivudine alone.225
Recommendations for the Treatment of Chronic
Hepatitis B: Who to treat and what treatment to use (Tables
11 and 12): Current therapy of chronic hepatitis B
does not eradicate HBV and has limited long-term effi-
cacy. Thus, careful consideration of the patient’s age, severity
of liver disease, likelihood of response, and
potential adverse events is needed before treatment is initiated.
Treatment is indicated if the risk of liver-related
morbidity and mortality in the near future (5-10 years)
and the likelihood of achieving maintained viral suppres-
Table 11. Comparison of Approved Treatments of Chronic Hepatitis B
IFN  Lamivudine Adefovir Entecavir Telbivudine
Indications
HBeAg , normal ALT Not indicated Not indicated Not indicated Not indicated Not indicated
HBeAg  chronic hepatitis Indicated Indicated† Indicated Indicated Indicated†
HBeAg- chronic hepatitis Indicated Indicated† Indicated Indicated Indicated†
Duration of treatment
HBeAg  chronic hepatitis 4-12 months#  1 year**   1 year**  1 year**  1 year**
HBeAg  chronic hepatitis 1 year   1 year   1 year  1 year  1 year
Route Subcutaneous Oral Oral Oral Oral
Side effects Many Negligible Potential Nephrotoxicity Negligible Negligible
Drug resistance - 20%, year 1 None, year 1  1% up to year 2^ 25% up to year 2
70%, year 5 29%, year 5
Cost* High Low Intermediate High Intermediate
*Based on treatment duration of 1 year
#PegIFN approved for 12 months
**Treatment for at least 12 months continuing for at least 6 months after anti-HBe seroconversion
^Entecavir resistance reported within year 1 in patients with prior lamivudine resistance
†Not preferred drug due to high rate of resistance
526 LOK AND MCMAHON HEPATOLOGY, February 2007

sion during continued treatment are high. Treatment is
also indicated if the risk of liver-related morbidity and
mortality in the foreseeable future (10-20 years) and the
likelihood of achieving sustained viral suppression after a
defined course of treatment are high. Treatment is not
indicated if the risk of liver-related morbidity or mortality
in the next 20 years and the likelihood of achieving sustained
viral suppression after a defined course of treatment
are low. Because of the fluctuating nature of chronic
HBV infection, the risk of liver-related morbidity and
mortality and the likelihood of response may vary as patient
progresses through the course of chronic HBV infection.
Thus, continued monitoring is essential for risk
assessment.

IC

In choosing which antiviral agent to use as the firstline
therapy, consideration should be given to the
safety and efficacy of the treatment, risks of drug resistance,
costs of the treatment (medication, monitoring
tests, and clinic visits), as well as patient and provider
preferences, and for women—when and whether they
plan to start a family. The pros and cons of the approved
treatments are summarized in Table 11. Although
the efficacy is not substantially different,
pegIFN-  is likely to supersede standard IFN-  because
of its more convenient dosing schedule. In view of
the high rate of drug resistance during long-term treatment,
lamivudine and telbivudine are not preferred except
where only a short course of treatment is planned.
While tenofovir is not yet approved for the treatment of
hepatitis B, emerging data suggest that its safety profile is
similar to that of adefovir and its antiviral efficacy in wildtype
as well as lamivudine-resistant HBV is comparable or
superior to adefovir. Finally, while combination therapy
seems to be a more logical approach, none of the combination
regimens tested to date is clearly superior.
Patients receiving IFN-  therapy should have blood
counts and liver panel monitored every 4 weeks, thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH) and HBV DNA levels every
12 weeks, and, if initially HBeAg-positive, HBeAg/anti-
HBe every 24 weeks during treatment. Blood counts, liver
Table 12. Recommendations for Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis B
HBeAg HBV DNA (PCR) ALT Treatment strategy
   20,000 IU/ml  2   ULN Low efficacy with current treatment.
Observe; consider treatment when ALT becomes elevated.
Consider biopsy in persons   40 years, ALT persistently high normal-2x ULN, or with family history of HCC.
Consider treatment if HBV DNA  20,000 IU/ml and biopsy shows moderate/severe inflammation or
significant fibrosis
   20,000 IU/ml  2   ULN Observe for 3-6 months and treat if no spontaneous HBeAg loss
Consider liver biopsy prior to treatment if compensated
Immediate treatment if icteric or clinical decompensation
IFN /pegIFN  , LAM, ADV, ETV or LdT may be used as initial therapy
LAM and LdT not preferred due to high rate of drug resistance
End-point of treatment – Seroconversion from HBeAg to anti-HBe
Duration of therapy
. IFN- : 16 weeks
. PegIFN- : 48 weeks
. LAM/ADV/ETV/LdT: minimum 1 year, continue for at least 6 months after HBeAg seroconversion
IFN  non-responders / contraindications to IFN 3 ADV/ETV
   20,000 IU/ml   2 x ULN
IFN- /peg IFN- , LAM, ADV, ETV or LdT may be used as initial therapy, LAM and LdT not preferred due to
high rate of drug resistance
End-point of treatment – not defined
Duration of therapy
. IFN- /pegIFN- : 1 year
. LAM/ADV/ETV/LdT:   1 year
IFN  non-responders / contraindications to IFN- 3 ADV/ETV
   2,000 IU/ml 1- 2 x ULN Consider liver biopsy and treat if liver biopsy shows moderate/severe necroinflammation or significant
fibrosis
   2,000 IU/ml  ULN Observe, treat if HBV DNA or ALT becomes higher
 /  detectable Cirrhosis Compensated:
HBV DNA  2,000 IU/ml—Treat, LAM/ADV/ETV/LdT may be used as initial therapy. LAM and LdT not
preferred due to high rate of drug resistance
HBV DNA  2,000 IU/ml—Consider treatment if ALT elevated
Decompensated: Coordinate treatment with transplant center, LAM (or LdT)  ADV or ETV preferred. Refer
for liver transplant
 /  undetectable Cirrhosis Compensated: Observe.
Decompensated: Refer for liver transplant
Abbreviations: ALT, alanine aminotransferase; ULN , upper limit of normal; IFN , interferon alpha; pegIFN- , pegylated IFN-alpha; LAM, lamivudine; ADV, adefovir;
ETV, entecavir; LdT, telbivudine.
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007 LOK AND MCMAHON 527

panel, TSH and HBV DNA, and if initially HBeAg positive,
HBeAg/anti-HBe should be tested every 12 weeks
during the first 24 weeks post-treatment. Patients receiving
NA therapy should have liver panel monitored every
12 weeks and HBVDNAlevels every 12-24 weeks, and, if
initially HBeAg-positive HBeAg/anti-HBe every 24
weeks during treatment. In addition serum creatinine
should be tested every 12 weeks for patients receiving
adefovir or tenofovir. HBsAg should be tested every 6-12
months in those who are HBeAg negative with persistently
undetectable serum HBV DNA by PCR assay.
Recommendations on Whom to Treat and with
What Antiviral Agent (Table 12)
(15). Patients with HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis
B
a. ALT greater than 2 times normal or moderate/
severe hepatitis on biopsy, and HBV DNA >20,000
IU/ml. These patients should be considered for treatment.
(I)
. Treatment should be delayed for 3 to 6months in
persons with compensated liver disease to determine if
spontaneous HBeAg seroconversion occurs. (II-2)
. Patients with icteric ALT flares should be
promptly treated. (III)
. Treatment may be initiated with any of the 6
approved antiviral medications, but pegIFN- , adefovir
or entecavir are preferred. (I)
b. ALT persistently normal or minimally elevated
(<2 times normal). These patients generally should
not be initiated on treatment. (I)
. Liver biopsy may be considered in patients with
fluctuating or minimally elevated ALT levels especially
in those above 40 years of age. (II-3)
. Treatment may be initiated if there is moderate or
severe necroinflammation or significant fibrosis on
liver biopsy. (I)
c. Children with elevated ALT greater than 2 times
normal. These patients should be considered for treatment
if ALT levels remain elevated at this level for
longer than 6 months. (I)
. Treatment may be initiated with IFN- or lamivudine.
(I)
16. Patients with HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis
B (serum HBV DNA >20,000 IU/ml and elevated
ALT>2 times normal) should be considered for treatment.
(I)
. Liver biopsy may be considered for HBeAg-negative
patients with lower HBV DNA levels (2,000-
20,000 IU/ml) and borderline normal or minimally
elevated ALT levels. (II-2)
. Treatment may be initiated if there is moderate/
severe inflammation or significant fibrosis on biopsy.
(I)
. Treatment may be initiated with any of the 6
approved antiviral medications but pegIFN- , adefovir
or entecavir are preferred in view of the need for
long-term treatment. (I for pegIFN- , adefovir, entecavir
and telbivudine and II-1 for IFN- and lamivudine).
17. Patients who failed to respond to prior IFN- 
(standard or pegylated) therapy may be retreated with
nucleoside analogues (NA) if they fulfill the criteria
listed above. (I)
18. Patients who failed to achieve primary response
as evidenced by <2 log decrease in serum HBV DNA
level after at least 6 months of NA therapy should be
switched to an alternative treatment. (III)
19. Patients who develop breakthrough infection
while receiving NA therapy (Table 13)
. Compliance should be ascertained, and treatment
resumed in patients who have had long lapses in
medications. (III)
. A confirmatory test for antiviral-resistant mutation
should be performed if possible to differentiate
primary non-response from breakthrough infection
and to determine if there is evidence of multi-drug
resistance (in patients who have been exposed to more
than one NA treatment). (III)
Table 13. Management of Antiviral-Resistant HBV
Prevention
. Avoid unnecessary treatment
. Initiate treatment with potent antiviral that has low rate of drug resistance
or with combination therapy
. Switch to alternative therapy in patients with primary non-response
Monitoring
. Test for serum HBV DNA (PCR assay) every 3-6 months during treatment
. Check for medication compliance in patients with virologic breakthrough
. Confirm antiviral resistance with genotypic testing
Treatment
Lamivudine-resistance 3 Add adefovir or tenofovir
Stop lamivudine, switch to Truvada*^
Stop lamivudine, switch to entecavir
(preexisting lamivudine-resistant mutation
predisposes to entecavir resistance)#
Adefovir-resistance 3 Add lamivudine#
Stop adefovir, switch to Truvada*^
Switch to or add entecavir#^
Entecavir-resistance 3 Switch to or add adefovir or tenofovir^
Telbivudine-resistance  3 Add adefovir or tenofovir
Stop telbivudine, switch to Truvada
Stop telbivudine, switch to entecavir (preexisting
telbivudine-resistant mutation
predisposes to entecavir resistance)
*Truvada   combination pill with emtricitabine 200 mg and tenofovir 300 mg
#Durability of viral suppression unknown, especially in patients with prior
lamivudine resistance
^In HIV coinfected persons; scanty in vivo data in non HIV infected persons
 Clinical data not available
528 LOK AND MCMAHON HEPATOLOGY, February 2007

. All patients with virologic breakthrough should
be considered for rescue therapy. (II-2)
. For patients in whom there was no clear indication
for hepatitis B treatment and who continue to
have compensated liver disease, withdrawal of therapy
may be considered but these patients need to be closely
monitored and treatment reinitiated if they experience
severe hepatitis flares. (III)
20. Treatment of patients with lamivudine (or telbivudine)-
resistant HBV
a. If adefovir is used, lamivudine (or telbivudine)
should be continued indefinitely to decrease the risk of
hepatitis flares during the transition period and to
reduce the risk of subsequent adefovir resistance. (II-3
for lamivudine-resistant HBV and III for telbivudineresistant
HBV)
b. If entecavir is used, lamivudine or telbivudine
should be stopped as continued presence of lamivudine
(or telbivudine)-resistant mutations will increase
the risk of entecavir resistance. (II-3 for lamivudineresistant
HBV and III for telbivudine-resistant HBV)
21. Treatment of patients with adefovir-resistant
HBV
a. In patients with no prior exposure to other NA,
lamivudine or entacavir may be added. (III)
b. In patients with prior lamivudine resistance in
whom lamivudine had been stopped when treatment
was switched to adefovir, lamivudine may be added
but the durability of response is unknown and reemergence
of lamivudine-resistant mutations has been
reported. (II-2)
22. Treatment of patients with entecavir-resistant
HBV
a. Adefovir can be used as it has been shown to have
activity against entecavir-resistant HBV in in vitro
studies, but clinical data are lacking. (II-3)
23. Patients with compensated cirrhosis — Treatment
should be considered for patients with ALT >2
times normal, and for patients with normal or minimally
elevated ALT if serum HBV DNA levels are high
(>2,000 IU/ml). (II-2)
a. Patients with compensated cirrhosis are best
treated with NAs because of the risk of hepatic decompensation
associated with IFN- –related flares of hepatitis.
In view of the need for long-term therapy,
adefovir or entecavir is preferred. (II-3)
24. Patients with decompensated cirrhosis —
Treatment should be promptly initiated with a NA
that can produce rapid viral suppression with low risk
of drug resistance. (II-1)
a. Lamivudine or adefovir may be used as initial
treatment preferably in combination to reduce the risk
of drug resistance and to achieve rapid virus suppression.
(II-2) Telbivudine may be substituted for lamivudine
but clinical data documenting its safety and
efficacy in patients with decompensated cirrhosis are
lacking.
b. Entecavir would be an appropriate treatment in
this setting but clinical data documenting its safety
and efficacy in patients with decompensated cirrhosis
are lacking. (III)
c. Treatment should be coordinated with a transplant
center. (III)
d. IFN- /pegIFN  should not be used in patients
with decompensated cirrhosis. (II-3)
25. In patients with inactive HBsAg carrier state
antiviral treatment is not indicated, but these patients
should be monitored (see Recommendation 12). (II-2)
Dose Regimens
26. IFN- and pegIFN- are administered as subcutaneous
injections.
a. The recommended dose of standard IFN-  for
adults is 5 MU daily or 10 MU thrice weekly. The
recommended dose of pegIFN- 2a is 180 mcg weekly.
(I)
b. The recommended IFN- dose for children is 6
MU/m2 thrice weekly with a maximum of 10 MU. (I)
PegIFN-  has not been approved for treatment of
chronic hepatitis B in children.
c. The recommended treatment duration for
HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B is 16 weeks for
standard IFN- and 48 weeks for pegIFN- . (I)
d. The recommended treatment duration for
HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B is 48 weeks for
both standard and peg-IFN- (II-3)
27. Lamivudine is administered orally.
a. The recommended lamivudine dose for adults
with normal renal function and no HIV coinfection is
100 mg daily (I). Dose adjustment is needed for patients
with estimated glomerular filtration rate <50
ml/min (Table 10a). (I)
b. The recommended lamivudine dose for children
is 3 mg/kg/d with a maximum of 100 mg/d. (I)
c. The recommended dose of lamivudine for persons
co-infected with HIV is 150mg twice daily. Lamivudine
should only be used in combination with other
antiretroviral medications. (I)
28. Adefovir is administered orally.
a. The recommended adefovir dose for adults with
normal renal function is 10 mg daily. (I) Dose adjustment
is needed for patients with estimated glomerular
filtration rate <50 ml/min (Table 10b).
29. Entecavir is administered orally.
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007 LOK AND MCMAHON 529

a. The recommended entecavir dose for adults with
normal renal function is 0.5 mg daily for patients with
no prior lamivudine treatment, and 1.0 mg daily for
patients who are refractory/resistant to lamivudine. (I)
Dose adjustment is needed for patients with estimated
glomerular filtration rate <50 ml/min (Table 10c).
30. Telbivudine is administered orally.
a. The recommended dose for adults with normal
renal function is 600 mg daily. (I) Dose adjustment is
needed for patients with estimated glomerular filtration
rate <50 ml/min (Table 10d).
31. Duration of nucleoside analogue treatment
a. HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B — Treatment
should be continued until the patient has
achieved HBeAg seroconversion and completed at
least 6 months of additional treatment after appearance
of anti-HBe. (I)
. Close monitoring for relapse is needed after withdrawal
of treatment. (I)
b. HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B — Treatment
should be continued until the patient has
achieved HBsAg clearance. (I)
c. Compensated cirrhosis — These patients should
receive long-term treatment. However, treatment may
be stopped in HBeAg-positive patients if they have
confirmed HBeAg seroconversion and have completed
at least 6 months of consolidation therapy and in
HBeAg-negative patients if they have confirmed
HBsAg clearance. (II-3)
. Close monitoring for viral relapse and hepatitis
flare is mandatory if treatment is stopped. (II-3)
d. Decompensated cirrhosis and recurrent hepatitis
B post-liver transplantation — Life-long treatment is
recommended. (II-3)
Special Populations
Coinfection with HBV and HCV
There is scanty information on the treatment of HBV/
HCV coinfection and recommendations on treatment
for HBV/HCV coinfection cannot be made at this
time.249-251 Two studies on standard IFN- and ribavirin
showed no difference in sustained virologic response to
HCV infection in patients with HBV/HCV co-infection
compared to patients with HCV infection only. However,
rebound in serum HBV DNA levels after an initial
decline, and reactivation of HBV replication in patients
who had undetectableHBVDNAprior to treatment have
been reported.
Coinfection with HBV and HDV
The primary endpoint of treatment is the suppression
of HDV replication, which is usually accompanied by
normalization of ALT level and decrease in necroinflammatory
activity on liver biopsy. The only approved treatment
of chronic hepatitis D is IFN- . One study found
that high dose (9 MU 3 times a week) IFN- had higher
rates of virologic and biochemical as well as histologic
response than those who received IFN- 3MU 3 times a
week or placebo.252 Although most patients had viral relapse,
improvement in liver histology was maintained 10
years post-treatment among the patients who received
high-dose IFN- .253 Two recent trials support the use of
pegIFN- in chronic hepatitis D, one study showed that
addition of ribavirin did not improve the response.254,255
Lamivudine has been evaluated in a small number of
patients and found to be ineffective in inhibiting HDV
replication.256
Based on available data, high-dose IFN-  (9 MU 3
times a week) or pegIFN-  for 1 year appears to have
long-term beneficial effects in patients with chronic hepatitis
D.
Co-Infection with HBV and HIV
Clinical studies in patients with HBV/HIV coinfection
reported lower response rates to standard IFN- 
treatment than those with HBV monoinfection.257 Responders
tend to have a higher mean CD4 cell count than
nonresponders. It is expected that pegIFN-  will have
similar or better efficacy than standard IFN- .
Lamivudine, emtricitabine and tenofovir are NAs with
activity against both HIV and HBV.234,258,259 However,
the rate of HBV resistance to lamivudine in HBV/HIV
coinfected patients is high, reaching 90% at 4 years.259
Tenofovir plus lamivudine or emtricitabine are commonly
prescribed as components of HAART in HBV/
HIV coinfected patients. Furthermore, tenofovir is
effective against lamivudine-resistant HBV233 and appears
to reduce the rate of lamivudine resistance when the
combination is used.260
Adefovir at the approved dose for HBV (10 mg) has
negligible activity against HIV. To date, no resistance to
HIV has been detected up to 144 weeks in small studies.
261 Entecavir has no activity against HIV. Telbivudine
also has no activity against HIV but it should not be used
in HBV/HIV coinfected patients because of the risk of
selection of M204I mutation in the YMDD motif.
Given that antiretroviral regimens may include drugs
with activity against HBV, it is reasonable to base HBV
treatment decisions on whether or not HIV treatment is
ongoing or planned. In HBeAg-positive patients who are
not in need of HAART, or who are already well-controlled
on HAART that does not include a drug with
activity against HBV, pegIFN-  may be considered as a
first-line option given its limited duration, but adefovir or
530 LOK AND MCMAHON HEPATOLOGY, February 2007

entecavir can also be used in this setting. It is generally
recommended that candidates for IFN-  therapy have
CD4 cell counts  500 cells/uL. Patients who have lower
CD4 cell counts or who are HBeAg-negative may be appropriate
candidates for adefovir or entecavir. Finally, in
HBeAg-negative patients who are likely to need HIV
treatment in the future, earlier initiation of HAART may
be considered.
For patients in whom HAART initiation is planned, it
is best to use a regimen that includes a drug/drugs with
activity against HBV. Most experts recommend using two
drugs, while others suggest that a single agent may be
sufficient in those with low HBV DNA levels. In patients
with cirrhosis who are newly started on HAART, two
drugs are preferred given the risk of a clinically significant
hepatitis flare in the setting of immune reconstitution. In
the setting of confirmed lamivudine resistance in patients
who are already on HAART, adding tenofovir is generally
preferred, but adding adefovir is also an option.
Hepatitis flares may occur when HBV treatment is
discontinued, particularly in the absence of HBeAg seroconversion.
Thus, when HAART regimens are altered,
drugs that are effective against HBV should not be discontinued
without substituting another drug that has activity
against HBV, unless the patient has achieved
HBeAg seroconversion and has completed an adequate
course of consolidation treatment.
Recommendations for Treatment of Patients with
HBV/HIV Coinfection
32. Patients who meet criteria for chronic hepatitis
B should be treated. (III)
. Liver biopsy should be considered in patients
with fluctuating or mildly elevated ALT (1-2 x normal).
(II-3)

IC

33. Patients who are not on HAART and are not
anticipated to require HAART in the near future
should be treated with an antiviral therapy that does
not target HIV, such as pegIFN- , adefovir or entecavir.
Although telbivudine does not target HIV, it
should not be used in this circumstance. (II-3)
34. Patients in whom treatment for both HBV and
HIV is planned should receive therapies that are effective
against both viruses: lamivudine plus tenofovir or
emtricitabine plus tenofovir are preferred. (II-3)
35. Patients who are already on effective HAART
that does not include a drug active against HBV may
be treated with pegIFN , adefovir or entecavir. (II-3)
36. In patients with lamivudine resistance, tenofovir
or adefovir should be added. (III)
37. When HAART regimens are altered, drugs that
are effective against HBV should not be discontinued
without substituting another drug that has activity
against HBV, unless the patient has achieved HBeAg
seroconversion and has completed an adequate course
of consolidation treatment. (II-3)
Antiviral Prophylaxis of Hepatitis B Carriers
Who Receive Immunosuppressive or
Cytotoxic Chemotherapy
Reactivation of HBV replication with increase in serum
HBV DNA and ALT level has been reported in 20%
to 50% of hepatitis B carriers undergoing immunosuppressive
or cancer chemotherapy. In most instances, the
hepatitis flares are asymptomatic, but icteric flares, and
even hepatic decompensation and death have been observed.
262-264 Reactivation of HBV replication is more
common when chemotherapeutic regimens that include
corticosteroids are used.265 In addition, reactivations have
been reported in HBsAg-positive persons after intra-arterial
chemoembolization for HCC and other immunosuppressive
therapies such as rituximab for lymphoma as well
as infliximab and other anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
therapies for rheumatoid arthritis or inflammatory bowel
disease.264,266,267 Clinical studies including one controlled
trial showed that prophylactic therapy with lamivudine
can reduce the rate of HBV reactivation, severity of associated
hepatitis flares and mortality.264,268-271 HBsAg testing
should be performed in persons who have high risk of
HBV infection (see Table 2), prior to initiation of chemoor
immunosuppressive therapy. Prophylactic antiviral
therapy should be administered to hepatitis B carriers at
the onset of cancer chemotherapy or a finite course of
immunosuppressive therapy, and maintained for 6
months afterwards. Viral relapse after withdrawal of lamivudine
has been reported in patients with high pre-chemotherapy
DNA level,272 HBsAg-positive persons with
serum HBV DNA levels  2,000 IU/ml prior to undergoing
cytotoxic chemotherapy should continue antiviral
therapy until they reach therapeutic endpoints for chronic
hepatitis B.
In the renal transplant setting, a small study found that
most HBsAg positive patients had increase in serum HBV
DNA levels necessitating lamivudine treatment.271 While
studies to date have focused on lamivudine, adefovir or
entecavir could be used as an alternate treatment, particularly
in patients who are anticipated to require more than
12 months of therapy in whom there is a higher risk of
resistance to lamivudine. In general, lamivudine and entecavir
are preferred because of their rapid onset of action
and lack of nephrotoxicity. IFN- should not be used in
this setting because of its bone marrow suppressive effects
and the risk of hepatitis flares.
HEPATOLOGY, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2007 LOK AND MCMAHON 531

While HBV reactivation can occur in persons who are
HBsAg negative but anti-HBc and anti-HBs positive and
in those with isolated anti-HBc, this is infrequent, and
there is not enough information to recommend routine
prophylaxis for these individuals.262,264
Recommendations for Treatment of Hepatitis B
carriers Who Require Immunosuppressive or Cytotoxic
Therapy
38. HBsAg testing should be performed in patients
who are at high risk of HBV infection (see recommendation
number 1), prior to initiation of chemotherapy
or immunosuppressive therapy. (II-3)
39. Prophylactic antiviral therapy is recommended
for HBV carriers at the onset of cancer chemotherapy
or of a finite course of immunosuppressive therapy.
a. Patients with baseline HBV DNA <2,000 IU/ml
level should continue treatment for 6 months after
completion of chemotherapy or immunosuppressive
therapy. (III)
b. Patients with high baseline HBV DNA (>2,000
IU/ml) level should continue treatment until they
reach treatment endpoints as in immunocompetent
patients. (III)
c. Lamivudine or telbivudine can be used if the
anticipated duration of treatment is short (<12
months). (I for lamivudine and III for telbivudine)
d. Adefovir or entecavir is preferred if longer duration
of treatment is anticipated. Entecavir has more
rapid onset of action than adefovir and may be more
appropriate in this setting. (III)
e. IFN-  should be avoided in view of the bone
marrow suppressive effect. (II-3)
Symptomatic Acute Hepatitis B
Antiviral therapy is generally not necessary in patients
with symptomatic acute hepatitis B because  95% of
immunocompetent adults with acute hepatitis B recover
spontaneously. Small case series with or without comparisons
to historical untreated controls have reported that
lamivudine improves survival in patients with severe or
fulminant hepatitis B.273,274 Limited data including one
prospective randomized controlled trial of IFN- showed
that antiviral therapy did not decrease the rate of progression
to chronic infection because all the study subjects had
resolution of infection.275
Despite the lack of properly designed studies, an argument
can be made for treating all patients with fulminant
hepatitis B using a NA given its safety and the fact that
many of these patients will ultimately need liver transplantation.
At the 2006 NIH HBV Meeting, it was also
proposed patients with protracted, severe acute hepatitis
B (increase in INR and deep jaundice persisting for  4
weeks) be treated. (4) Lamivudine or telbivudine would
be a reasonable choice given their safety and rapidity of
action, and the short anticipated duration of therapy except
in patients who proceed to transplant. Entecavir can
also be used but adefovir may not be optimal because of its
slow action and potential for nephrotoxicity. IFN-  is
contraindicated because of the risks of worsening hepatitis
and the frequent side effects.
Recommendations for Treatment of Patients with
Acute Symptomatic Hepatitis B
40. Treatment is only indicated for patients with
fulminant hepatitis B and those with protracted, severe
acute hepatitis B. (III)
41. Lamivudine, telbivudine or entecavir is preferred.
(II-3)
a. Treatment should be continued until HBsAg
clearance is confirmed or indefinitely in those who
undergo liver transplantation. (II-1)
b. IFN- is contraindicated. (III)
Acknowledgment: This guideline was produced in
collaboration with the Practice Guidelines Committee of
the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases.
This committee provided extensive peer review of the
manuscript. Members of the Practice Guidelines Committee
include Margaret C. Shuhart, M.D., M.S.,
(Chair), Andres Cardenas, M.D., M.M.Sc., Stanley M.
Cohen, M.D., Timothy J. Davern, M.D., Steven L.
Flamm, M.D., Steven-Huy B. Han, M.D., Charles D.
Howell, M.D., David R. Nelson, M.D., K. Rajender
Reddy, M.D., Bruce A. Runyon, M.D., John B. Wong,
M.D., and Nizar N. Zein, M.D.
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